Integrated Fire Management: The Mongolia Experience

(IFFN No. 23 – December 2000, p. 16-21)

Introduction

After a grueling 14 hour drive across seemingly endless expanses of rolling steppe, we arrive at our destination – the outskirts of a small town in northern Mongolia. The temperature is -20°C with stinging winds blowing out of the Northwest at 30 knots. Our small team of eight people is greeted by an even smaller contingency of firefighters – four men on horseback equipped with wet rags and blankets as their only tools. It is early spring 1998, the beginning of the fire season and we have just arrived at the scene of the first fire in the region. It is also the starting point for the German-funded Integrated Fire Management Project. The goal is to develop a fire management concept for one of Mongolia’s largest protected areas and its surrounding communities.

The scene we witnessed that spring morning is common, but the fire is earlier than normal. Following a general trend in Asia, fire seasons in Mongolia are starting earlier, lasting longer, and are more intense. Recent seasons have highlighted a drastic increase in wildfires. Available statistics indicate that historically an average fire season affected 1.74 million hectares of forest and steppe annually. From 1996 to 1999, more than 30 million ha have gone up in smoke – in four short years, an area larger than Holland or about half the size of France. Some of the hardest-hit areas have been the taiga forest regions in the north. In the last four years, more forested areas burned than were harvested in Mongolia over the last 65 years. The brief growing season and low growth capacity of the trees mean that these forests may take 200 years or more to regenerate.

Background

Mongolia has two fire seasons – a spring fire season (February to early June) where all fires are human-caused, and a short, less intense fall season (September to late October) again entirely human-caused. At least 90% of all fires occur during the spring. Lightning strikes during the summer season (when most precipitation falls) can cause fire, but are rare and result in minimal loss. Major fires occur in the steppe zones, the mountain forest-steppe transition zones, and the primary forested area-the taiga. In the mountain forest and steppes, grass dominates the south slopes while Siberian larch (Larix sibirica), Siberian and Scotch pine (Pinus sibirica and Pinus sylvestris), and White birch (Betula rotundifolia) dominate the north and eastern slopes. Fanned by strong spring winds, fires spread quickly in the steppe. Devastating stand replacement fires are common in both the mountain forest-steppe and taiga forests.

Until recently, a branch of the military known as the Civil Defense centrally managed fire events in Mongolia. The military maintained all training regimes, equipment, and personnel with virtually no support to local communities. With the transition and associated economic difficulties, this centrally managed fire fighting system has collapsed.

Fig. 1. Number of Fire Occurences and Size of AffectedSteppe and Forested Area by Year (1963 – !997).

Perhaps the single most important contributor to the increase in fire spread is the grounding of the Aerial Patrol Service. In 1969 the Mongolian Fire Protection and Aerial Patrol Service were established to provide early detection and rapid initial attack on fires. The program was a Soviet style aerial detection / airborne firefighting program staffed with 200 to 300 smokejumper / helicopter rappellers and a fleet of helicopters for helitack and tactical aerial support. The aerial forces operated out of seven bases distributed throughout the fire-prone regions of northern Mongolia. Smokejumpers on routine aerial patrols detected a high percentage of the fires and handled approximately 90% of the suppression workload. In the early 1990’s, when the communist government and Soviet financial support abruptly disappeared, the Mongolian aerial program took a nosedive. At present, Mongolians cannot afford to maintain and fly their aerial patrol aircraft. Instead, they must rely on NOAA satellite imagery as their primary early warning system with a spatial resolution of 1.1 km2. The decline of the aerial program through the mid-1990’s resulted in the creation of a “fire suppression void” and no doubt greatly contributed to the horrendous fire losses experienced in the 1996 and 1997 fire season

The increase in the number of fires is related to the opening of markets once highly controlled or restricted. The vast majority of fires are not deliberately set to clear land. Rather, it is a function of carelessness. One example is the collection of elk antlers for sale to European and Chinese markets. During the previous regime, a single, state-run enterprise managed this market under strict controls and guidelines. Today, it is open to virtually anyone. Fires start for three reasons: (1) collection starts in the bitter cold of February where the fire is simply a survival tool; (2) sparks fly from vehicle exhaust pipes driven into remote forests, and (3) tracer bullets left by the Russian military have entered the game hunting market and are used to hunt elk for the blood antlers which have a higher value on the market place.

Innovative Solutions – an Integrated Approach

Assessment of the devastating 1996 and 1997 fire seasons highlighted the need for decentralizing fire management including the development of locally organized handcrews and implementation of an aggressive grassroots fire prevention / fire fighting program. In February of 1998, the German and Mongolian governments signed an agreement to start an Integrated Fire Management Project to be implemented over the next three years. The priority target areas selected were the buffer zone Soums (districts) surrounding the south-end of the Gorkhi-Terelj National Park and Khan Khentii Strictly Protected Area, an area hard hit by the 1996-1997 firestorms.

Defining Integrated Fire Management

Integrated Fire Management, like other community-based programs, focuses on flexible, pragmatic approaches designed to support local people’s role in resource management. Specifically, it entails the application of the art and science of modern wildland fire technologies and practices to the local fire problem – i.e. the community level.

Fire management is most effectively broken down into three discrete components: (1) prevention, (2) pre-suppression, and (3) suppression.

1. Prevention includes all measures that help prevent the outbreak of fires or help the reduction of the fire severity and spread. A comprehensive fire prevention program uses all three elements of education – engineering and enforcement to reduce risk, hazards, and exposures. Education and enforcement programs target risk while engineering targets hazards and exposures.
2. Pre-suppression is typically defined as the actions and activities needed to ensure suppression organizations are fully prepared for any required wildfire suppression measures. The central focus of pre-suppression work is management planning and GIS-based mapping.
3. Suppression refers to the activities and actions involved in controlling and extinguishing unwanted wildland fires, including the establishment, training, and equipping of fire management units.

 The sustainability of this kind of fire management program depends on four factors:

• Development of methods that focus on the practical capacity of local communities and seek to integrate component activities for fire prevention, pre-suppression, and suppression.
• Development of mechanisms for inter-institutional cooperation between and among all involved and/or affected organizations and individuals
• Laying the groundwork for effective coordination prior to and during fire events
• Establishing a framework for appropriate oversight at the national level to integrate the above-mentioned components (common goals and activities) as well as to standardize administrative procedures, training programs, strategies, tactics, material, and equipment

Local Community Capacity Building

To date, the focus of the IFM Project has been capacity building at the local community level. Using participatory methodologies such as PRA (participatory rural appraisal), participants identified specific activities for prevention, pre-suppression, and suppression components.

Fire Prevention

In the development of the program, the IFM Project started with the philosophy that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Hence, the most effective fire suppression strategy is an effective fire prevention program. In the summer of 1998, the IFM project began pilot activities in the buffer zone communities surrounding the Khan Khentii Special Protected Area. Specifically targeted were the potential multipliers including, Information Training Center (ITC) “extension” officers, educators, protected area rangers, key community persons. Together with them a number of educational materials have been developed and introduced including: (1) a fire prevention curriculum for school children; (2) a fire prevention video; (3) a ranger’s handbook to be used as an outreach tool in remote areas; (4) a coloring book for small children; and (5) a fire mascot to carry the prevention message.

Pre-Suppression

The central focus of pre-suppression work has been the drafting of a fire management plan for the protected area administration and local communities. Planning, however, is hampered by history. The planning process was a form of strict control. All plans were in essence a promise to perform. Failure to fulfill the objectives could be dealt with harshly. Managers are naturally tentative when it comes to spelling out activities and tend to convert planning documents to long-winded descriptions of the problem or resource. To overcome these difficulties, the project has worked to redefine the Fire Management Plan as a “Management Guideline” allowing managers to treat the document with the necessary flexibility.

To support pre-suppression activities, the IFM Project has engaged in a comprehensive fire management mapping effort. In an initial stage, NOAA-14 satellite imagery has been compiled to show annual fire coverages with overlays on forest types. In a second phase, the project helped to design fire risk, hazard and danger maps at a scale of 1:100,000 for the entire region. Further development of these maps is in progress.

Suppression

Suppression goals include (1) the establishment of fire management crews, (2) provision of equipment and (3) the development of a locally run “Fire Training Program” customized for Mongolian conditions-its fuels, fire behavior, available suppression resources, and logistics. In the spring of 1998, six Soum (district) governors in the protected area buffer zone formed fifteen-person (15) fire management units (FMUs – or suppression crews) for their respective Soums. The crew consists of a crew boss, assistant crew boss, and thirteen unemployed volunteers. The crew is jointly managed through a Memorandum of Understanding between the local community and the protected area administration.

After the establishment of the crews, the project identified equipment to match the fuel conditions. Fuel conditions throughout Northeastern Mongolia closely resemble the fuel types of the western United States, British Columbia, and interior Alaska-tough steppe grass with deep dense roots, brush, larch, pine, spruce, birch, moss, and muskeg like valley bottoms. GTZ equipped the crews with fire swatters, fire shovels, Pulaskis, Adze Hoes, fire rake (Council type), backpack pump, crosscut saw, a chainsaw and hardhats. Each crew has been equipped with personal portable radios, a vehicle mobile radio, and mobile repeaters for communications with the dispatch center. Stationary repeaters are being installed to link the Soum dispatch centers with the national coordination center in Ulaanbaatar.

Starting in March 1999, the project assisted Mongolian fire specialists in developing a series of training materials including a 32 – hour Basic Firefighter Course with accompanying Instructor’s Manual, Student Workbook, training videos and Crewboss Manual. The training programs were adapted from existing Mongolian training and the basic courses used to train American wildland firefighters-Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior (S-190) and Firefighter Training (S-130) and basic Incident Command System concepts. Approximately one-half of the course was conducted in the field, including “live burns” for mop-up and a final day live-fire exercise. Crews were instructed in the bump-up progressive crew method of fireline construction. A fire instructor’s training course for Mongolian instructors followed this. In a subsequent phase, we observed and coached Mongolian instructors as they trained “rookie FMU crew members” and community (Soum) fire support crews. Due to unusually high precipitation during the winter, however, the project has been unable to evaluate crew performance on fires.

Inter-Institutional Cooperation

Effective resource management requires inter-institutional cooperation in part due to overlapping responsibilities, but also because of the need to share institution or agency resources. This is even truer with fire because, (1) fires can occur anywhere the right conditions exist and (2) unlike some resources (such as forests), fire moves – and its devastating path affects everyone as it inflicts damage to soil, water, wildlife, vegetation, air quality, and human beings.

Mongolia has recognized the need for a pluralistic approach to fire management in legislation, however mechanisms for inter-institutional cooperation have not yet been clearly defined. Most actors, particularly in the rural locations where the project is active, remain cut off from regional and national level resources. The IFM Project is assisting with the first moves in the arena by helping to establish cooperative agreements between the protected area administration and local governments for the joint management of the established fire management units. These agreements however are relatively simple in form and function and do not encompass regional or national level agencies.

Effective Coordination

Fire events are life-threatening and without proper coordination in the field can be unnecessarily dangerous. It is, therefore, imperative that coordination be spelled out as part of normal planning activities. Several countries achieve this through the Incident Command System. It is essentially a military concept of the organization, adapted for disaster management – fire, floods, earthquakes, etc. The organization expands or contracts depending on incident size, needs, or complexity. If all the components are in place and everyone is playing the game, the incident is handled efficiently. It is designed to be an inter-agency or single agency / small fire or major widespread firestorm. All participating agencies are trained to work together, often on the same team, sharing the resources needed to get the job done. Essential ICS components include:

• common terminology (equipment, strategy/tactics, standards etc )
• modular organization with five functions – Command, Plans, Logistics, Finance/ Administration and Operations (the firefighters)
• Integrated communications
• Unified command if multi-jurisdictional
• Consolidated Action Plan for each work shift
• A designated “span of control” (3 -7 per supervisor)
• Designated incident facilities
• Properly trained and equipped disaster specialists (firefighters)
• Resource management (continual accountability for all resources)

 National Oversight

In a decentralized fire management environment, the need to maintain oversight remains. This does not mean direct involvement in implementation, but rather the development of policies, norms, guidelines, and procedures that are conducive to or supportive of the initiatives taking place at the regional and sub-regional levels. At a minimum, it means (1) creating an open forum for discussion (open-door policy-making) inclusive of all stakeholders, (2) compiling, analyzing, and distributing information that supports informed decision-making, (3) standardizing procedures and practices, and (4) continuous monitoring, evaluation, and improvement of existing policies. Without this oversight, fire management initiatives at the community level risk becoming an island solution with little chance of replication in other areas.

Mongolia has recently taken significant steps in this direction through the establishment of a Fire Management Agency. Pursuant to newly enacted legislation, the Mongolian Civil Defense and State Police will transfer their responsibilities to the new agency including associated resources (personnel, budget, and equipment).

Conclusions

After a short two years of project life, it is still too early to claim the successful development of a comprehensive model for integrated fire management.

Areas of particular concern are:

• National Oversight – Appropriate oversight will be required (1) to ensure quality control and preparedness; (2) to help with the standardization of training, procedures, and safety; (3) provide technical assistance and specialized training; (4) to facilitate cooperation/coordination between agencies; (5) to evaluate training and determine the need for additional training; and 6) to determine fire management program needs.

• National Level Training Center – Mongolia has a major and complex fire problem. Only a handful of fighters has received basic fire training. To effectively fight complex and large fires requires training beyond the basic level. Wildland firefighters in developed and some undeveloped countries take several higher courses that are more specialized. Large and complex fires require a higher level of understanding of fire behavior, strategy and tactics and organization. ICS requires multi-agency training of ICS principles.

• Coordination and Cooperation – A challenge remains the coordination of management planning with other institutions and agencies responsible for fire management at the regional and national levels. The project has not had sufficient time to adequately address this need. Nevertheless, experiences tell us that this kind of coordination is an integral part of the decentralization process in Mongolia and will require profound changes at all levels of the affected government.

• Communications System – All interagency team members need a common radio system – one they can program to an incident fire frequency. All agencies should be linked to local and regional dispatch centers.

• Early Warning Systems – Faster detection means smaller fires, a need for fewer firefighters, and greatly reduces expenses associated with firefighting. A system of staffed observers, ground, and air, would significantly increase detection capability and significantly speed up fire crew attack and containment time.

Contact address

James R. Wingard
Principal Advisor, GTZ Integrated Fire Management Project
Ulaanbaatar
MONGOLIA

Tel/Fax: ++976-1-320886
E-mail: jrwingard@magicnet.mn

William Moody
North Cascades Fire Service
Twisp, Washington
U.S.A.

Tel/Fax: ++1 509-997-5971
E-mail: bmoody@methow.com

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| IFFN No. 23 | Specials | Country Notes |

Community-based Wildfire Management in Mongolia

(IFFN No. 23 – December 2000, p. 57-60)

Preface

It is a fact that the number of wildfires has increased since the early 90s corresponding to changes in social conditions. Though, there are currently three distinct fire seasons which effect the forests of Mongolia, the evolution of the spring and fall fire seasons, accounting for approximately 85-88 per cent (Valendik et al. 1998), is a reflection of increased anthropogenic pressures responsible for wildfire ignition. Hence, the dramatic increase, particularly within the past three to four years, has been “socially” induced by humans. Drastically increased human activities within natural areas have caused a strain on natural environments, effecting an unnatural increase in wildfire occurrence in Mongolia. Recent increased human activity within natural areas has been recognized to be the cause of the current increase in anthropogenic wildfire. The study has revealed that the current problem of wildfire in Mongolia is only a symptom of the dysfunctioning relationship between humans (caused by their activities) and their natural environment. The reasons explaining the causes of human activity responsible for the increase in wildfire occurrence are more indirect and less apparent.

The Social Conditions of Wildfire in Mongolia

Political

For the first time, a nominally democratic system is now in force in Mongolia. A wide range of tasks has thus been decentralized and delegated to local authorities. Many local governments have been overwhelmed by the enormous commitments referred to them by the central government and ministries (Bruun 1996). Responsibilities are neglected and policy implementation has suffered as a consequence. Apparently, the blurred division of authority has made decision-making less transparent and also less legitimate in some localities, as compared to the state of affairs before the introduction of democratic reforms in local governance.

Economic

In January 1991 Soviet aid disappeared and Soviet advisers left the country. As a result, Mongolia has suffered from external shocks to the economy. The loss of trade and aid left large gaps in external trade and fiscal balances which were too wide for Mongolia to cover with stabilization measures alone (Rana 1996). One of the main problems to the implementation of effective economic reforms is the natural geographical barriers of distance. Coupled with very poor infrastructure the country has had to suffer great polarities in economic development distribution. Whereas the command economy in practice suspended the significance of geographical distance by means of cheap and abundant energy supplies, the transition to world market prices on fuel has certainly sharpened the Mongolians’ awareness of distance, both within their own country and in terms of their location in the world. Especially those living in rural areas are unable to buy or sell products. The distance and lack of available, or affordable transportation make trading nearly impossible. When trading does occur then only under the conditions as set by travelling merchants, thus rural people are at a highly disadvantaged position for fair trading. In rural areas, only an average of thirty per cent of the total income is said to be in cash while the rest is in kind. In urban areas the average is seventy per cent in cash (Bruun 1996). However, it has been said that semi-nomadic livestock herders tended to suffer less than their urban countrymen during the national crisis of the early 1990s (Bruun 1996) which is perhaps the reason for the fact that herding is becoming increasingly popular during difficult economic times.

Social

The poor economic situation in Mongolia has led to a breakdown of social services which were once heavily subsidized by the state under the socialist system. The lack of income among the increasing number of poor in Mongolia and the limited options available to better the situation has meant a turning toward the only alternative possible under such conditions – dependency on natural resource utilization. The collection of natural resources for both personal consumption as well as sale is often seen as the only option for survival. The result of this dependency on natural resources has led to dramatically increased pressures on natural surroundings and protected areas. The majority of the population now relies on natural resources for its subsistence. It is estimated that particularly the young are forced to sell natural resources to support their families. Some of the main activities conducted for purposes of income generation include logging, fuelwood collection, hay making, hunting and fishing, and, most importantly, non-timber forest product collection. Since the overriding majority of the population heavily depends on these resources for their subsistence and overall survival, issues of natural ecosystem maintenance and sustainability have become a clear concern.

Trends in Findings Pertinent to Anthropogenic Wildfire Occurrence

Increase in Occupational Herding

A direct result of economic and social pressures is the trend toward an increase in occupational herding which heightens the potential risk for anthropogenic wildfire occurrence. Risk factors include intensive natural resource utilization and rangeland preparation – possibly with the use of fire. The growing influence of this group should be recognized when considering the implementation of fire management plans. Hence, it is to be expected that an increase in occupational herding, unless better controlled, will inevitably bear a significant impact on the environment and fire management. Especially due to the recognition of the growing influence of herders, alternatives to this occupation should be sought to alleviate the pressures on natural areas and their resources before problems of natural degradation or wildfire become uncontrollable. Sustainable herding practices would mean a reduction in the numbers of herders and the creation of better infrastructure to better promote avenues for business and trade, while education, particularly targeting male youths must become more accessible to increase levels of qualification for other occupations.

Increased Physical Mobility

A noted increase in migration has been observed in Mongolia particularly within the past five years as the effects of market economy have made their toll. Since the beginning of the transition process, open unemployment emerged for the first time in Mongolia (Schmidt 1995). In rural areas some estimates of unemployment run as high as 80-90 per cent of the population. The trend toward increased physical mobility is economically related. The lack of infrastructure, income, employment opportunities, and means to financial assistance are the primary motivators of physical mobility as individuals seek to improve personal situations. The increase, particularly in urban to rural mobility is a great concern for discussions on wildfire management since this trend is also largely connected to the trend in a return to occupational herding practices, as mentioned above. Urban to rural mobility also has a great impact on the increased numbers dependent on natural resources. When life becomes unaffordable in urban centres people are forced to move into the country where subsistence often does not depend on money but rather on resources for trade and barter.

Increased Social Deviance in the Adherence of Laws

In addition to the problem of poverty is the establishment of new laws that are deemed inappropriate and inapplicable given the current social conditions in these areas. An example is the law prohibiting entry into protected areas for the collection of natural resources from 10 March to 1 June which only serves to eliminate previously established forms of control. Whereby compulsory registration for forest entry and natural resource extraction were commonly practiced, the inappropriate new law now prevents this form of control. Such laws are not only counter productive to ensuring that natural areas be protected, but also undermine the authority of enforcement officers leaving them powerless to control the situation and, in the case of fire occurrence, to detect the person responsible. Hence, the enactment of inappropriate new laws and the inability of locals to change their current behaviour are felt to be a couple of the main problems in the area of law implementation.

As law enforcement officers in natural areas are limited in their means and authority to better control the situation, legal structures are additionally weakened. Law enforcement is largely ineffective as, for some, no “real” punishment can be issued for illegal use or entry into the forest, since often the only risk is confiscation in the amount of fee payment. Permits for forest use and prohibition laws are often of no use and not enforcable under such difficult living conditions. Persons who cause fires cannot be penalized when the individual, as is true in many cases, has no means of paying fines. To make matters worse, enforcement officials are in a position where they are unable to properly enforce laws, as situations are so drastic and the number of those breaking the law greatly outnumber officials. Due to governmental constraints in funding, patrolling must be currently done with privately owned modes of transportation (e.g. using one’s own horses). Even articles for purposes of self defence are the private property of officers. Hence, environmental law enforcement is weakened resulting in haphazard, largely inefficient, and non-standardized practices. During seasons of high fire risk, few rangers are available to patrol vast areas of forest, making it virtually impossible to effectively control trespassers. Given the current state of affairs, assistance to rangers has become practically non-existent as locals are in a position to empathize with each other resulting in conscious inactivity in matters of public control. Enforcement in the prevention or early detection of fires is thereby hindered as enforcement controls are weak at a time when society is simply unable to conform to prescribed regulations, and enforcement officers are limited in their options for penalizing offenders. Environmental lawlessness is born out of the survival needs of the people who are currently living in difficult economic times. Should the above mentioned problems be reduced or eliminated, the natural consequence could very likely be a turn to the adherence of laws.

Discussion

Though considerable progress in wildfire suppression has been recently achieved due to the GTZ Integrated Fire Management (IFM) Project in Mongolia, long distances, restricted access and steep slopes continue to make fire prevention the key to sustainable development. As illustrated, the complexity of the trends is due to the effects of more basic and widespread issues of poverty and inappropriate development. With this recognition, most trends are inherently interrelated. Hence, a reduction in the lifestyle trend toward increased subsistence herding would automatically have an effect on improvements to the implementation and enforcement of environmental laws as current pressures on natural areas would consequently be reduced. In the same way, if the trend toward increased division of urban and rural wealth disparities were to be adequately addressed then changes to the trend in lifestyle would also be noticed. These trends are reflections of ongoing and dynamic social conditions, i.e. the same conditions which effect the current trend in increased anthropogenic wildfire occurrence. Thus, the natural and social environments of Mongolia affect and are simultaneously effected by these current trends.

An understanding of these trends is thereby crucial when considering the implementation of an effective wildfire management plan. The establishment of the office of Ministry for the Protection of Nature and the Environment in Mongolia to address the growing expressions of concern for the natural environment is but only a first step. Proper recognition of the underlying reasons affecting the apparent problems is fundamental for successful and sustainable policy implementation. Similarly, an effective fire management plan greatly depends on how these problems are addressed. In order to do so, the recognition of social trends is necessary to better understand the potential influences and impacts which these trends may have on fire management plans.

Conclusion

The above given trends in human activity show under which social conditions the occurrence of wildfire are dependent for its reduction or increase. Though it is often assumed that the problem of increased wildfires is the result of decreased awareness through reduced propaganda or education warning against fire, the study has revealed that a general awareness of the dangers of fire does exist, but that out of general need, people are currently not in a position to effectively eliminate the occurrence of anthropogenic wildfire. Social need must first be addressed. Hence, awareness, though it does play an important role, is not the key issue to be addressed for the long-term reduction of wildfires. Education is not enough as measures must be taken to ensure a more stable social environment. The true problems must be recognized before they can be suitably addressed. Resonance of the state of the social environment goes on to effect the surrounding humanly-influenced “natural” environment. The uncovered trends serve to assist in the recognition of the social conditions currently having an effect on the increase in anthropogenic wildfire for the areas of Batschireet and Mongonmort in Mongolia.

It must be remembered that wildfire occurrence is only one expression, one symptom of larger underlying problems prevalent within the social environment. Human activity and its effect on natural surroundings can no longer be denied. To ignore the social issues as noted would only result in the generation of new, recurring, and / or continued existence of current undesirable symptoms within the environment in Mongolia – natural or otherwise. Action must be taken or irreparable damage to the natural environment through wildfire occurrence could very well be nature’s final means of addressing the problem for us. A socio-ecological balance must, therefore, be sought.

Literature

Bruun, O., and O. Odgard (eds.) 1996. Mongolia in transition: Old patterns, new challenges. Curzon Press Ltd., Richmond, Surrey. 272p.
Rana, P.B., and N. Hamid (eds.). 1996. From centrally planned to market economies: The Asian approach. Vol. 2. People’s Republic of China and Mongolia. Oxford University Press, New York, U.S.A.
Schmidt, S. 1995. Mongolia in transition. The impact of privatization on rural life. Verlag für Entwicklungspolitik. Saarbrücken, Germany.
Valendik, E.N., G.A. Ivanova, and Z.O. Chuluunbator. 1998. Fire in forest ecosystems of Mongolia. Int. Forest Fire News No. 19, 58-63.

Contact address

Soo Ing
Fire Ecology Research Group
Max Planck Institute for Chemistry
c/o Freiburg University
P.O.Box
79085 Freiburg
GERMANY

Fax: ++49-761-808012
Tel: ++49-761-808011
E-mail: fire@uni-freiburg.de

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| IFFN No. 23 | Specials | Country Notes |

Wildfires in Mongolia 1996

(IFFN No. 15 – September 1996, p. 30-35)

Introduction

During the months of March and April, 1996, Mongolia began to experience wildland fire events significantly exceeding normal activity levels for this period of time. The fire activity intensified in late April and continued unabated through the month of May, burning extensive areas of forest and grazing land. In mid May, a request for assistance was received at the U.S. Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA). Ray Dionne, Disaster Operations Officer from OFDA, and Deanne Shulman, Fire Management Specialist from the United States Forest Service, were dispatched to Mongolia to assess the fire situation, and identify critical needs and problems impacting the effectiveness of the Mongolian response to this emergency situation. During the period 21 May to 5 June, 1996, they consulted with Mongolian government officials responsible for the management of the fire disaster, conducted aerial reconnaissance of heavily impacted fire areas, participated in fire logistic support missions, interviewed firefighters, and met with the American Ambassador, U.S. Agency for International Development personnel, and the International Donor Community.

The Mongolia Wildland Fire Environment

Mongolia has a land area of 1,566,371.52 square kilometers, a land area slightly larger than Alaska. The average altitude of the country is about 1,600 m a.s.l., making it one of the highest countries of the world.

The majority of forested land is located in the northern half of the country and covers approximately 10% of the total land base. Fires occur primarily within three vegetative zones: the taiga forest zone, the mountain forest steppe zone, and the steppe zone. The Mongolian taiga zone, occurring only in the northernmost areas of the country, is the southern edge of the vast Siberian taiga forest, the largest contiguous forest system on earth. These boreal coniferous forests are composed primarily of Siberian Larch (Larix sibirica, 70%), and Siberian Pine (Pinus sibirica, higher elevations). Mosses and lichens provide abundant ground fuels. The mountain forest steppe zone covers 25% of Mongolia and is comprised of both steppe (grassland) vegetation found on the drier slope aspects and mixed coniferous hardwood forest of pine, larch, and birch (Betula platyphylla) with a grass understorey on the cooler, moist northern slopes. The topography is characterized by hilly, mountainous terrain separated by wide river valleys. The mountain steppe zone occurs in a belt across the northern portion of the country. The extensive grasslands of the steppe zone covers nearly the entire far eastern part of Mongolia and extends westward in a belt through the central portion of the country. The topography of the steppe zone ranges from gently rolling to flat terrain. In a typical year, the majority of fires occur in the grasslands or grass understory of the steppe and mountain steppe zones.

Weather patterns create two distinct fire seasons in Mongolia. Spring weather is dominated by strong, dry winds. These spring winds can become very fierce and it is not uncommon for airplane traffic bound for Ulaanbaatar to be diverted to other cities due to wind during the spring. These winds are characteristic from March through June and can create intense fire potential in the dry, dead grass from the previous fall. July and August are generally rainy and produce new grass growth. During September and October, the new grass dries and again becomes available fuel for wildfire. Winters tend to be bitterly cold and dry.

Table 1 shows the number of forested acres burned each year from 1978 to 1994 (1995 Natsagdoogiin and Lamjabiin, Information On Group Training Course in Reforestation Promotion Leader “Forestry, Forest Industries, Unpublished Report).

 Tab.1. Forested area burned annually in Mongolia

The Situation in Spring 1996

Fire Conditions: An unusually dry winter (1995/96) resulted in significantly lower than average fuel moistures in the grasslands and forests of Mongolia. The strong, spring, northwest winds quickly spread any fire ignition through the tinder-dry and readily available fuels. The primary ignition source of these forests are the local inhabitants, through careless use of fire or discarded cigarettes. Much of the adult population in Mongolia smoke cigarettes. During spring, many people derive extra income by collecting deer antlers in the forest and selling them. Careless smoking while involved in this activity can result in ignitions in forested areas.

Fire Damage: Information gathered from briefings in Ulaanbaatar with Deputy Prime Minister Purevdorj, Chairman of the State Emergency Commission and General Damdinsuren, Deputy Chairman of the State Emergency Commission and Chief of Civil Defense Committee of Mongolia indicated the following as of 30 May 1996:

• There were a total of 352 fires in the country, of which 22 had been extinguished, 94 were contained, and 36 remained uncontrolled.
• A total of 3.5 million hectares of forested land and 5.9 million hectares of grassland was burned. Most of the fire activity was in the northern thirteen provinces. One fire in the taiga zone of the northern Huvsgol region had a 128.7 kilometer front in the Mongolia portion and extended across the border into Russia.
• There had been 23 fatalities, including six persons killed while involved in fire suppression activities. Sixty people had been treated for serious burn injuries.
• 168 gers (Mongolian traditional dwellings) were destroyed leaving 750 people homeless.
• 7,800 animals died in the fires, and many fences, range improvements, and water developments destroyed.
• Over 2000 telephone poles were burned, severing some communication links to provincial areas.

Personal observations from aerial reconnaissance and interviews with field personnel conducted on 25, 26 and 29 May in the Tov and Selenge province indicated immense areas burned in both forest and grasslands with intense, stand-replacing crown fires in approximately 10% of the burned forested areas. Many of the fires were in remote, high elevation locations with limited accessibility. Smoke covering the region limited full utilization of the few aircraft available. The extent of pasture land burned will have immediate adverse impacts on the available grazing land of nomadic herdsmen. Discussions with various officials indicate that a fire season of this magnitude and devastation has never occurred within their career span, although Chief of Civil Defense General Damdinsuren stated that 30 or 40 years ago there was a fire season of a similar catastrophic proportion. Old fire scars and mosaic regeneration patterns observed from the air indicate a history of stand-replacement fires in these forested ecosystems.

Fig.1. Daily updates of fire activities were provided by the National Remote Sensing Center. The photograph shows the fire status map of 27 May 1996 (Photo: D.Shulman)

The Government of Mongolia Response

Emergency Response Organisation: The State Emergency Commission is chaired by the Deputy Prime Minister and has overall responsibility for dealing with the fire emergency situation. This commission consists of representatives from all the ministries. The Chief of the Civil Defense Committee is the Deputy Chair of the State Emergency Commission. The mission of the Civil Defense Committee is to protect human lives and properties from natural disasters. In a wildfire emergency situation, the Civil Defense Committee is responsible for all operational aspects of fire suppression efforts. The provincial branches of the Civil Defense Committee do not have full-time employee staff. Civil Defense representatives are in a reservist status and are activated in a civil defense capacity only in the event of an emergency incident. The Civil Defense organization includes approximately 200 smokejumpers based in seven northern provinces. It also includes approximately 100 specialized rescue personnel who are trained firefighters.

In response to the fire situation, the State Emergency Commission declared a “state of emergency”. Special coordination groups were established in local areas impacted by the fire situation to direct suppression efforts and provide humanitarian relief as needed. The military and police forces were mobilized to fight the fires as were thousands of local people. Border troops near Russia were also mobilized. All available resources were mobilized in the fire suppression effort, which on a daily basis ranged from 3,000 to 10,000 firefighting personnel and from 1,000 to 3,000 vehicles. Local individuals were conscripted to fight fire and were organized in crews under the leadership of military personnel or other officials.

Prioritization Criteria for Resource Commitments: Priority fires for the limited suppression resources were determined based on the fire’s proximity to population centers and threat to National Parks and Strictly Protected Areas. Due to the limited resources available and the number and magnitude of active fires, it was determined that some remote fires would have no suppression activity.

Intelligence Gathering: The Ministry of Nature and Environment maintains a very modern Information and Computer Centre that compiles environmental data. This includes meteorological, water quality and pollution data. NOAA computerized satellite imagery is used for meteorological purposes and environmental monitoring. During the wildfire emergency, fires were mapped daily using computerized satellite imagery. The fires were then numbered and listed by province and county with the latitude and longitude indicated for each. The map and list were sent daily to the Civil Defense Commission and the Ministry of Nature and Environment. Another service that the computer centre provided was meteorological data for the Mongolian Hydrometeorological Service, Weather Modification Centre “Khuryn Shim”. Other fire situation intelligence data were gathered through information from the field. Generally, this information was two days old by the time it was received in Ulaanbaatar. There was no radio communication from the fires to the local command centres. Information from the fires was carried by people on horseback or vehicles to local command centres and then telephoned to Ulaanbaatar.

Aircraft and Equipment: Aircraft committed to the firefighting effort included four military MI-8 helicopters utilized for logistic support and firefighter transport only. These helicopters were not equipped for tactical uses such as bucket drops or rappelling. An AN-26 airplane was used to “cloud seed” in an effort to produce rainfall. AN-2 aircraft were used by smokejumpers and military paratroopers to parachute to remote fires. There are no airtankers in the country.

A country-wide inventory list provided by the Civil Defense Committee dated 28 May 1996 indicates the following firefighting tools and equipment:

Tab.2. Inventory list of firefighting tools and equipment available in Mongolia during the 1996 wildfire episode

Fire fighting equipment observed include homemade “swatters” (pieces of tire rubber, linoleum, perforated metal, or felt attached to the end of a wood handle), five gallon backpack pumps (Russian made), two and a half gallon pressurized agricultural type water sprayers (Russian made), small steel rake-like brooms, air blowers (donated by the People’s Republic of China), and kerosene burn equipment. Wet clothes and tree boughs were the primary tools used to beat out the edges of the fire.

No safety equipment or fire resistant clothing was observed (with the exception of one smokejumper wearing a yellow Nomex shirt that was given to the smokejumper unit in 1990 when a UN-sponsored United States team installed a parachute maneuvering simulator for the smokejumpers in Ulaanbaatar, USDA Report 9151-2803-MTDC).

Strategy and Tactics: The non-professional firefighters (military, police, and locals) used direct flanking attacks by beating out the edges of the fire perimeter. This method can be effective in light wind conditions and grassy, light fuels. It is considerably less effective in the heavier ground fuel conditions of the taiga forests in the north, or windy conditions. The smokejumpers and trained firefighters were utilizing indirect backfire and burn out techniques where appropriate to control the fire.

Cloud seeding to enhance precipitation was used to suppress fires where weather conditions met required parameters. The Weather Modification Centre had cloud seeded twenty times during the spring to assist in fire suppression. Meteorologists at the Ministry for Nature and Environment Information and Computer Centre analyzed satellite imagery to determine which clouds may be favorable for cloud seeding. This information is sent to the Weather Modification Centre of the Hydrometeorology Service. Silver iodide “bullets” are fired from either an AN-26 airplane or the ground into the selected clouds to form a nucleus for raindrop formation.

Fig.2. Smiling young fire-fighting supporters demonstrate home-made fire swatters. Photo: D.Shulman.

Logistics: A communication schematic provided by the Civil Defense Commission shows short-wave radios located at seven smokejump bases in the northern provinces. Civil Defense communications between Ulaanbaatar headquarters and the province capitals is done by telephone. Communications directly to or from fire locations are carried out by people on horseback or vehicles. The smokejumper units have “line of sight” radios (Russian made) with a maximum 6 mile range depending on terrain, with which they can communicate with each other and aircraft directly overhead.

There were three MI-8 helicopters utilized for logistic missions. Equipment and supplies were transported by vehicle or animal to the fire locations. Crates of canned meat and tools were observed being transported on helicopter logistic missions, but local firefighters complained of inadequate food supplies, sleeping bags, and tents.

Identified Problems

Economic Constraints: The fragile market economy and limited emergency government funds available to support the fire fighting effort significantly impacted the fire suppression operation. Smokejumper fire detection patrol flights, normally scheduled based on a fire danger rating, were delayed this year due to funding shortages for aircraft fuel. Fires that could have been detected early and suppressed while small were not detected until they became large. Smokejumper units were understaffed due to low pay and hazardous duties. The normal contingent is 300 smokejumpers. This year, however, Civil Defense could only attract 200 smokejumpers. In the transition economy, all purchases must be made in cash. Cash to pay for aircraft fuel was a continuing problem. Food and local transportation to fires was coordinated and organised at local command centres, but lack of funds to buy fuel and purchase food locally caused considerable supply and distribution problems. Local firefighters continued to receive salaries from their regular employers. Those firefighters recruited from the ranks of subsistence herders were provided food while fighting fires.

Communications: The Civil Defense Committee lacks basic communication equipment to effectively manage an emergency incident of any kind. This lack impedes the flow of adequate, accurate, and timely information between field personnel and individuals responsible for resource allocation, strategic planning, and logistic support decisions. In a rapidly changing, geographically dispersed emergency incident such as a widespread wildfire, up-to-date information is crucial for decision makers.

Disaster Management: An emergency situation of this magnitude requires an incident management structure that incorporates specialists and workers from all spheres of the government and local populations. There was no clear emergency management structure to develop an overall strategic plan, implement the plan, and provide logistic support and financial expertise to support the operation. Lack of a strategic plan and logistics problems were resulting in inefficient use of firefighting resources. Information relating to specific daily costs of supporting the fire suppression effort was difficult to obtain, frustrating members of the international donor community requiring a cost analysis to justify recommendations for cash donations.

Additional Information

A chronological narrative of specific daily activities during this assessment is documented in the Trip Report on file at the U.S. Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance. The full text of the Mongolia Wildfire Assessment Technical Report is also on file at OFDA.

From: Ms. Deanne Shulman
Fire Management Specialist
Address:
Sequoia National Forest
Cannell Meadow Ranger District
United States Forest Service
P.O. Box 3
USA – Kernville, CA 93238

Fax: ++1-619-376-3795
Tel:  ++1-619-376-3781

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