WHO Health Guidelines for Episodic Vegetation Fire Events

 

WHO Health Guidelines for EpisodicVegetation Fire Events

Draft Table of Contents

1. Introduction

2. Air Pollution from Vegetation Fires and Health

    2.1 Introduction
        2.1.1 Global Fire Occurrence
        2.1.2 Hazard Assessment at the Basis of Fire Risk
        2.1.3 Fire-weather forecasts
    2.2 Source Characterization: Emission and Post-Emission processes
    2.3 Ground-based Monitoring
    2.4 Space Monitoring and Modeling of the Distribution of Fire Product
    2.5 Climate Monitoring and Modeling of the Distribution of Fire Products
    2.6 Emergency Response Procedures

3. Guidelines on Forest Fire Emergencies for Public Health Protection

    3.1 Introduction
    3.2 Health Effects
        3.2.1 Acute health impacts of biomass air pollution
        3.2.2 Acute health impacts of particulate air pollution
        3.2.3 Chronic health impacts
    3.3 Public Advisories
        3.3.1 Information to the public
        3.3.2 Information on ambient air quality
        3.3.3 Information on national action
        3.3.4 Information on health effects
    3.4 Mitigation measures
        3.4.1 Remaining indoors
        3.4.2 Use of air cleaners
        3.4.3 Use of masks
        3.4.4 Outdoor precautionary measures
        3.4.5 Evacuation to emergency shelters
    3.5 Guidance on Methodology for Assessment of Forest-Fire Induced Health Effects
        3.5.1 Important potential components of all studies
        3.5.2 Study Designs / acute Exposures
        3.5.3 Study Designs / chronic Exposures
        3.5.4 Evaluation of data
        3.5.5 Priorities
   3.6 Application of short-term air quality guidelines
        3.6.1 Risk management
        3.6.2 Application of WHO Air Quality Guidelines
   3.7 Factors Influencing Health Effects

4. Prevention of Future Health-Affecting Events

    4.1 The Source: Land-Use / Fire Policies, Cross-References to other Programmes
    4.2 Recommendations: Addressing gaps in knowledge, technologies, programmes

5. Appendices

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Report on Early Warning for Fire and Other Environmental Hazards: III. RECOMMENDATIONS

 

Report on Early Warning for
Fire and Other Environmental Hazards

 

III. RECOMMENDATIONS

International Initiatives and Non-binding International Guidelines

Science and Technology Development

Recommendations by the IDNDR Early Warning Working Group on Fire and Other Environmental Hazards

The recommendations given by the IDNDR Early Warning Working Group on fire and other environmental hazards build on a series of previous international efforts which addressed the needs of international collaboration in providing and sharing information and technologies. In so doing, these efforts can create the institutional mechanisms necessary to fulfill the overall goals of the IDNDR as related to fire disasters. The recommendations are in agreement with, and legitimised by, international initiatives of scientific, management and policy institutions. They address a broad scale of fire management issues which will be mentioned because they are prerequisites for operational early warning systems. Summary recommendations of the IDNDR Early Warning Working Group are given at the end of this chapter.

International Initiatives and Non-binding International Guidelines

The methodologies, systems, and procedures in early warning of fire and atmospheric pollution, as in the preceding chapter, are not equally available worldwide. Furthermore, some information systems, such as the global fire data set, global coverage of fire-weather prediction, or real-time monitoring of active fires are still in the phase of being tested and further developed.

Several recent international initiatives in fire science and policy planning have developed concepts and visions for collaboration in fire science and management at international level. The recommendations of the UN FAO/ECE Seminar “Forest, Fire, and Global Change”, Shushenskoe, Russian Federation, August 1996 (ECE/FAO/ILO, 1996), acknowledged by the resolution of the International Wildland Fire ’97 Conference, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, May 1997 (Clevette, 1997; Anonymous, 1997), and presented at the 11th World Forestry Congress, Antalya, Turkey, October 1997 (Goldammer, 1997c), underscored the need of providing international agreements which address the following issues:

i) Quantifiable information on the spatial and temporal distribution of global vegetation fires is urgently needed relative to both global change and disaster management issues.

Considering the various recent initiatives of the UN system in favour of global environmental protection and sustainable development, the ECE/FAO/ILO Seminar on Forest, Fire and Global Change strongly urges the formation of a dedicated United Nations unit specifically designed to use the most modern means available to develop a global fire inventory, producing a first-order product in the very near future, and subsequently improving this product over the next decade. This fire inventory data will provide the basic inputs into the development of a Global Vegetation Fire Information System. The FAO should take the initiative and coordinate a forum with other UN and non-UN organizations working in this field, e.g. various scientific activities of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP), to ensure the realization of this recommendation. (See also Recommendations of ECE/FAO and the international fire science community [Anonymous, 1995]).

ii) The development of a satellite dedicated to quantifying the geographical extent and environmental impact of vegetation fires is strongly supported.

iii) A timely process to gather and share information on ongoing wildfire situations across the globe is required.

iv) Mechanisms should be established that promote community self-reliance for mitigating wildfire damages and that would also permit rapid and effective resource-sharing between countries as wildfire disasters develop.

It is recommended that the UN prepare the necessary measures in this regard, which should follow the objectives and principles of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR).

v) The unprecedented threat of consequences from fires burning in radioactively contaminated vegetation, and the lack of experience and technologies of radioactive fire management, requires a special, internationally concerted research, prevention and control programme.

The International Tropical Timber Organization of the UN took a first step in its development of “Guidelines on Fire Management in Tropical Forests” (ITTO, 1997). They provide comprehensive guidance targeted at the situation in the economically less developed regions of the tropics. Among other comments, the guidelines state:

“Assessment, prediction and monitoring of fire risk and means of quantification of forest fires and other rural fires are prerequisites for fire management planning purposes. Statistical data sets can also be used to call attention of authorities, policy makers and the general public. In the tropics such information is difficult to be gathered by ground based-methods. Air- and space borne sensors offer possibilities to monitor less accessible and sparsely populated land areas with inadequate ground-based infrastructures.”

Accordingly, ITTO recommends:

i) Seeking access to meteorological information from ground stations and space borne systems and the utilization of this information for fire intelligence (fire risk assessment).

ii) Use of existing orbital remote sensing systems for fire detection and prediction which provide real-time information on the geographic location of fires.

iii) ITTO member countries should join others in supporting the development of international mechanisms to predict wildfires (early warning systems).

iv) The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) should ensure that in the implementation of Agenda 21 for forests, due attention is given to forest fires in relation to arrangements that may be developed to harmonize and promote international efforts to protect the world’s forests.

v) A UN-sponsored Global Fire Research and Management Facility which includes a Global Vegetation Fire Information System and the capabilities to provide support on request to any nation in fire management and prevention and management of wildfire disasters should be considered by the CSD.

The ITTO guidelines provide general recommendations which will need to be fine-tuned to meet specific national requirements. In Indonesia, for instance, ITTO is sponsoring the development of the “National Guidelines on Protection of Forests against Fire” which will be finalized in December 1997. This initiative is particularly important in light of the repeated smog episodes in South East Asia caused by land-use fires and wildfires. Other countries, such as Namibia, aim to base their national programmes on the ITTO guidelines.

The first regional initiative is underway in the region of member states of the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN). The resolution and recommendations of the ASEAN Conference on “Transboundary Pollution and the Sustainability of Tropical Forests: Towards Wise Forest Fire Management” in Kuala Lumpur, Dec. 1996, stated (ASEAN, 1997):

“The Conference recognised the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) Guidelines on Fire Management in Tropical Forests which has been adopted by most of the ASEAN member countries”.

It further recommended that,

“A collaborative meteorological and air monitoring information network and workable partnership in ASEAN should be further explored. The network would make use of up-to-date remote sensing and communication technologies in order to provide regional assessment of fire risk, fire and smoke events and early warning systems. The related existing national and regional institutions should form a core group of agencies that could be coordinated by a regional centre, such as the AIFM. This centre will take the lead in the organisation of such a network, and to assist the ASEAN Senior Officials on Environment (ASOEN) Haze Technical Task Force, as required in the ASEAN Cooperation Plan on Transboundary Pollution.”

Another regional initiative is proceeding in the Baltic Basin. The First Baltic Conference on Forest Fire (4-8 May 1998, Poland) is designed to improve the cooperation in early warning of fire and fire management among the countries bordering the Baltic Sea; candidate warning and alert systems are described above in the section on Automatic Fire Alerts.

Science and Technology Development

Fire research and technology development have received considerable stimulation by scientific projects conducted under the umbrella of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) and other programmes devoted to global change research (see e.g. Andreae et al., 1993; Journal of Geophysical Research Special Issue, 1996; FIRESCAN Science Team, 1996; Malingreau and Justice, 1997; van Wilgen et al., 1997). While the scope of global change research is not necessarily directed towards requirements of operational management systems, e.g. early warning of natural hazards, the spin-offs of basic science nevertheless have a considerable potential for management solutions.

However, the application of existing technologies, methods, and procedures of information gathering, processing and distribution has revealed that many of the existing systems must be developed further in order to meet the requirements of precise and real-time application for early warning and management of fire and other environmental hazards.

Communication systems for early warning information dissemination are generally advanced since they rely on the technology progress in the civilian telecommunication sector. Space borne sensing and collection of real-time data for early fire warning purposes generally depend on systems which were not specifically designed for sensing fire precursors, active fires, and fire effects. Thus, a short overview is given below on the most important sensors which are currently designed or are in progress of construction.

New space borne sensors for early warning of fires and atmospheric pollution

In accordance with the analysis of Kendall et al. (1997) it is obvious that the remote sensing fire community, in addition to continuing experimentation and refinement of methods, needs to provide the operational monitoring data sets, at regional and global scales, to contribute to early warning of fire hazard, to fire and smoke management, and to earth system studies. The development of operational automated monitoring techniques and the provision of consistent long term data sets is a challenge that the remote sensing community is now facing. Issues associated with prohibitive data costs, computing resources, data management, data archival, and distribution need to be addressed.

Data set development is being undertaken with satellite sensing systems which were not designed for fire monitoring purposes. The current suite of sensors suitable for fire monitoring have problems such as calibration, saturation, spatial resolution, orbital overpass time, and coverage, which need to be taken into account in the data processing and data set compilation. It is critical that the user community fully understands the limitations of the data and its utility. New sensors are being designed and built which will reduce or eliminate some of these problems, but they will introduce new, and in some cases unanticipated, problems. The development of new satellite data sets is an iterative process and one which needs to be undertaken in close collaboration with the user community. The planned sensing systems will certainly provide a challenge to the remote sensing community in terms of data volume. The challenge will be to render the raw data to a volume and information content suited to the user community.

Some of the sensing systems which are in the planning and/or construction phase are facing financial constraints. The user community which requires new space borne technologies for early warning applications therefore underscores the need to realize these planned satellite programmes:

MODIS Imaging System

The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) is planned for launch as part of NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS) in 1998. This system will provide new capabilities over the currently utilized coarse resolution sensors. Thirty-six spectral bands are planned between 0.4ìm and 14.3ìm at resolutions ranging from 250m to 1000m. Currently, two MODIS instruments are planned with the first platform providing a 10:30 am and pm overpass and the second providing a 2:30 am and pm overpass. For fire monitoring, the one kilometre infrared channels at 3.96ìm and 11.0ìm bands will have increased saturation levels, 500K and 335K respectively, which will permit improved active fire monitoring. Full resolution MODIS fire products will have 1 km resolution, and the data will be summarized for coarser grids. In the post launch period, emphasis will be placed on validating the fire product and developing and testing automated burn scar detection techniques. The improved spatial and radiometric resolution of MODIS at 250m in the visible and near-infrared bands will permit more accurate area estimate of burn scars.

BIRD Satellite Observation

BIRD will be a small satellite mission for early warning of vegetation conditions and fires. Starting from their FIRES proposal (Jahn et al., 1996) the DLR (Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Luft- und Raumfahrt) had proposed a new approach in the design of a small satellite mission dedicated to hot spot detection and evaluation. The new approach is characterized by a strict design-to-cost philosophy. A two-channel infrared sensor system in combination with a Wide-Angle Optoelectronic Stereo Scanner (WAOSS) shall be the payload of a small satellite (80kg). The unique combination of a stereo camera and two infrared cameras gives the opportunity to acquire both more precise information about leaf mass and photosynthesis for the early diagnosis of vegetation condition and changes, as well as real time discrimination between smoke and clouds. The primary objectives of the planned BIRD mission are:

  • test of a new generation of infrared array sensors adapted to earth remote sensing objectives by means of small satellites;
  • detection and scientific investigation of hot spots, including forest fires, volcanic activities, burning oil wells or coal seams; and
  • thematic on-board data processing, and testing a neuronal network classificator in orbit.

Next generation geosynchronous satellites

The next generation of geosynchronous satellites will provide improved fire monitoring capabilities with continued high temporal coverage. This means that a better understanding of the diurnal cycle of fire in a range of ecosystems will be possible. For monitoring North and South America, the GOES NEXT (I-M) series of satellites was launched in 1994. The new GOES satellites offer greater radiometric sensitivity and spatial resolution along with improved geolocation. Preliminary results from GOES-I data indicate enhanced capabilities in the identification of fires and the quantification of associated haze. Geosynchronous coverage of Africa and Europe will also be improved in the coming years as the METEOSAT Second Generation (MSG) satellites are launched in 1998. MSG will offer a significant improvement in biomass burning monitoring capabilities through increased spectral coverage. The new sensors will provide 3 km scale coverage every fifteen to thirty minutes with a spectral range similar to that provided by the NOAA-AVHRR. With the addition of a middle-infrared channel (3.8ìm), an opportunity for thorough investigation of the diurnal cycle of fire in African ecosystems will be feasible at last.

Future Challenges: Multi-spectral and multi-temporal sensing of early warning parameters

Early warning, monitoring and inventory of wildfire needs to be accompanied by monitoring and inventory of those ecological characteristics which lead to fire. Disturbances, such as insect or disease outbreak, wind throw of trees, forestry practices and other land use activities frequently are precursors to fire events, fire patterns and resulting severity. Insects and disease stress ecosystems, resulting in partial mortality and production of dead materials, particularly foliage and other fine materials which are critical to fire ignition and behaviour. Post-fire vegetation recovery is important to predict fire-return intervals.

Advanced early warning systems will need to integrate these parameters into multi-layer fire information systems. Geographic information systems (GIS) technology, combined with decision support systems (expert systems), offer feasible, cost-efficient, and user-friendly solutions.

International fire research programmes

The fire research programmes conducted under the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) offer a suitable mechanism to provide the scientific perspectives for the IDNDR. As it is anticipated that the consequences of global change in general and climate change in particular will increase global natural hazards, the merging of joint interests between the IGBP and IDNDR communities seems to be advisable.

 

Recommendations by the IDNDR Early Warning Working Group on Fire and Other Environmental Hazards

In accordance with the conclusions and recommendations given by the various international initiatives, the IDNDR Early Warning Working Group on Fire and other Environmental Hazards comes to the following recommendations for priority activities:

i) A global fire inventory must be designed and implemented, producing a first-class product in the very near future, in order to provide a basis for early warning systems. Subsequently, this product then must be improved for standardized application over the next decade.

Fire inventory data is necessary to provide the basic inputs into the development of a future relational (geo-referenced) global fire database within the proposed Global Vegetation Fire Information System (GVFIS). FAO should take the initiative and coordinate a forum with other UN and non-UN organizations working in this field, including various scientific activities of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) and the mechanisms of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 1997).

ii) A timely process to gather and share real-time information about ongoing wildfire situations on a global basis is required.

This follows a proposal to create the World Fire Web in which a network of centres with facilities to receive and process fire observation data from satellites will be connected via the World Wide Web (WWW). Through the World Fire Web scientists, managers, and policy makers can have instant access to local, regional and world data so that they can can exchange experiences, methods and trouble-shoot with each other. The World Fire Web, in conjunction with the space borne evaluation of vegetation dryness, fire-weather forecasts and the possibility of forecasting fire danger and fire behaviour may provide a powerful early warning and disaster preparedness and management tool at national, regional and global scales. The information network should include the resource status by continuously monitoring the disposition of suppression resources. This includes the location and status of individual resources as well as potential availability for inter-agency and international mobilization.

iii) Technology transfer and information exchange on early warning and fire management decision support systems must be provided through international collaborative agreements or technical assistance programmes. Such programmes must support countries in fire-prone regions of the tropics and subtropics where advanced fire management systems are not yet fully available.

iv) The development of space borne sensor technologies devoted to the specific tasks of recognizing wildfire disaster precursors, fire activities, and the impacts of fire (ecological, atmospheric, chemical) must receive high priority.

v) Additional fire research is needed in those locations where existing early warning systems cannot be applied due to the particular relationships between vegetation, local/regional weather and prevailing socio-economic or cultural conditions which contribute to wildfires and their secondary damages, such as atmospheric pollution.

South East Asia is one of the less explored regions in which fire research must receive adequate attention as proposed by the ASEAN Transboundary Haze Pollution initiative as well as by the IGBP global-change oriented science programmes. These include the South East Asian Fire Experiment (SEAFIRE) and the SARCS Integrated IGBP/IHDP/WCRP Study on Land-use Change in Southeast Asia.

vi) Policies and agreements on environmental protection at international levels should ensure that in the implementation of Agenda 21 for forests, due attention is given to forests fires in relation to arrangements that may be developed to harmonize and promote international efforts to protect the world’s forests.

vi) The suggestion of ITTO to establish a UN-sponsored facility for global fire research and management is endorsed to facilitate the development of the proposed Global Vegetation Fire Information System. This is considered essential in order to provide support on request to any nation in early warning, prevention, management and mitigation of wildfire disasters.

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Workshop on WHO Health Guidelines for Episodic Vegetation Fire Events, Lima, Peru 6-9 October 1998

 

Workshop on WHO Health Guidelines for Episodic Vegetation Fire Events

Lima, Peru 6-9 October 1998

Sponsored by:

World Health Organization (WHO)

World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP)

CEPIS/PAHO/WHO

 

I. Background

Human-caused and natural wildfires in forests and other vegetation as well as land-use fires occur in many parts of the world. Smoke from vegetation fires consists mainly of fine particulate matter in the respirable range and to a lesser extent, of carbon monoxide and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which are not generally relevant to the long distance transport of air pollutants. During the episode of smoke in the South East Asian countries, monitoring of particulate matter of mean aerodynamic diameter at or below 10 m has shown that short-term air quality standards of WHO´s 1987 air quality guidelines for respirable particulate matter are largely exceeded.

The recurrence of transboundary smoke originating from uncontrolled forest fire and land-use fires in many countries around the world causing acute and long-term respiratory health problems requires a comprehensive strategy based on broad international consensus. Any comprehensive strategy must include:

  1. rapid detection capability of uncontrolled forest fire emergencies on a global scale;
  2. the gathering of useful and reliable monitoring data and health surveillance;
  3. the dissemination of information to all affected parties for appropriate decision making; and
  4. the development of national environmental and health response plans to forest fire emergencies, based on an international guideline.

Environmental as well as health aspects, cause-effect relationships, long-range pollution transport, etc. must be taken into consideration.

Case studies on the health impact of past and current large area forest fires must be examined and used to:

  1. correlate induced health effects with downwind concentration levels of particulate emissions and other pollutants; and
  2. develop a series of recommended steps for decision making and actions to be taken, when particulate and other pollutants from regional vegetation burning reach unacceptable levels.

Advanced monitoring data already collected and currently being measured in case studies of regional fire and smoke episodes from satellites, aircraft, and ground-based air sampling networks must be reviewed and examined in the context of its possible interpretation and use by the international health care community, in early decision making after the detection of fire event. The combination of global and regional meteorological data, atmospheric mass transport modelling, and real-time monitoring data on primary biomass particulate emissions, secondary aerosols, and other pollutants must be viewed as a vital part of any comprehensive strategy to both determine large area forest fire or source emissions characterization and downwind air quality impact on human population, quickly, for decision making during the episode.

A workshop of a small group of high-level experts with personal experience covering collectively all pertinent aspects of the problem was convened and the experts were organized into two Work Groups covering:

Work Group I – Environmental Health Issues:

  1. medical case studies of induced health effects resulting from large fire events;
  2. air pollution exposure assessment;
  3. air pollution (particulate matter) toxicology and epidemiology;
  4. effects of smoke from vegetation fires on human health;
  5. methods of health surveillance; and
  6. government health policies, including early emergency response procedures.

Work Group II – Environmental Monitoring and Global Meteorological Modelling Techniques:

  1. chemical properties/speciation of compounds, especially particulates;
  2. advanced regional and global satellite, aircraft mounted, and ground based environmental monitoring technologies;
  3. global and regional meteorological mass transport modelling, forecasting, prediction of concentrations; and
  4. regulatory environmental policies, including early emergency response procedures.

The experts came from different regions having shared interest in this problem (i.e. Latin America, North America, South East Asia, Western Pacific, and Africa).

WHO, at present, does not have any guidelines on how to advise Governments in emergency cases such as encountered with respect to vegetation fires and the smoke possibly affecting millions of people. As a consequence, it was determined that such guidelines should be developed on a very short time base.

The final guidelines will be based on a background document developed by a consultant from background papers that were solicited from and prepared by the small group of high level experts. The consultant – Orman Simpson, USA was named by AMRO/PAHO for the purpose of commissioning background papers, developing the background document, organizing a working meeting of the expert group, hereinafter referred to as the Expert Meeting, and preparing a final draft Guidelines document for delivery to WHO. The outcome of the Expert Meeting was a first draft Guideline document “WHO Guidelines for Vegetation Fire Periodic Events” which will be reviewed on a time-limited basis after the Expert Meeting by the Workshop Chair and two Vice-Chairs. Based on the results of the Review, a final draft Guidelines document are to be prepared and delivered to WHO. WHO will then review, edit, and publish the final Guidelines. In addition, the background document of papers written by the experts will be published as a scientific reference to the final Guidelines.

Elements of the draft guideline document include, but are not limited to the following:

  1. Review and summary of globally available information and case studies on the health impacts of vegetation fires;

  2. Review and summary of globally available monitoring information and data from measurement campaigns on vegetation fires;

  3. Characterization of air pollutant components in vegetation fires and their associated health effects;

  4. Recommendations on the interpretation and use of monitoring data, global and regional meteorological data, and atmospheric mass transport modelling to determine source apportionment of smoke episodes (i.e., large area source emissions characterization) and determine or predict down-wind air quality impact on human population;

  5. Review and summary of existing national guidelines on forest fires emergencies;

  6. Guidance on scientific methodologies for studying vegetation fire-induced health effects;

  7. Guidance for contingency plans, including a series of recommended steps to be used in decision making during a fire episode and actions to taken;

  1. Protective devices
  2. Information of the public
  3. Practical advice
  4. Training

    8. Guidance on regulatory environmental and health governmental policies and legal aspects.

The Expert Meeting was held at CEPIS, Lima, Peru during the week of 5-9 October and was co-sponsored by WHO, WMO, and UNEP.

The Lima Expert Meeting objectives included the following:

  1. Review and summarize globally available information and case studies on the health impacts of smoke generated by vegetation fires;

  2. Review and summarize globally available monitoring data and information from measurement campaigns on vegetation fires;

  3. Review and summarize existing national guidelines of forest fires emergencies;

  4. Develop a draft “Health Guidelines on Periodic Vegetation Fire Events” giving guidance on mitigation measures, vulnerability reduction, preventive action, environmental policy options, and future emergency response mechanisms.

These recommendations and guidelines should then be brought to the attention of the responsible national, regional (e.g. ASEAN) and international bodies (e.g. UNCSD) by the WHO Director-General. These recommendations should also form the basis for suitable arrangements and mechanisms (e.g. emergency response, vulnerability reduction, environmental health action plans, etc.) within WHO – at country, regional, interregional and global levels.

II. Outline of the Guidelines Document

Title: WHO Health Guidelines for Episodic Vegetation Fire Events

1. Introduction

General Introductory Section

2. Air Pollution from Forest Fires and Health

This section sets the scene for the rationale and development of the guidelines for fire and smoke emergencies, implementation, etc..

2.1 Basic Facts

Types and causes of wildfires and land-use fires, physico-chemical aspects of air pollutants from forest fires – definitions, notation, measurement techniques, sources of different types of data, interpretation of data for decision making, influencing factors affecting concentrations, source emission characterization and determining downwind exposures and their associated health effects, assessment of health effects in practice, quality assurance issues in implementation of guidelines for forest fires, etc.;

2.2 Global Situation

Overview of the exposure situation with regard to forest fires events in different world regions; highlighting key problems and issues, with emphasis on developing countries, lessons learned, on the basis of literature and case studies.

2.3 Role of Guidelines for Forest Fire Emergencies

How to use and apply the guidelines. Developing a national policy and strategy for responding to vegetation fire and smoke emergencies. How to obtain and use data for decision making in environmental health action plans.

3. Guidelines on Forest Vegetation Fire Emergencies for Public Health Protection

3.1 Smoke episodes emissions characterization and assessment of health risks related to downwind air quality.

3.2 Guidance on measures in emergency cases – contingency plans:

  1. Information of the public
  2. Protective devices
  3. Mitigation measures
  4. Practical advice
  5. Training;

    3.3 Guidance on methodology for assessment of health effects induced by burning of vegetation: epidemiological studies of short-term, long term effects, study design, confounding variable, statistical evaluation, etc.

    3.4 Application of appropriate short-term air quality guidelines: applicability of WHO air quality guidelines, application of other short-term guidelines, e.g. emergency values

    3.5 Factors influencing health outcomes: description of the influence of elevation, humidity, tropical climate, nutritional status, health status, vulnerability, etc. on the actual health impacts of air pollutants from vegetation burning on the individual and on vulnerable groups

    3.6 Guidance on regulatory environmental and health governmental policies and possible legal issues.

    4. Prevention of Future Health-Affecting Events

    Emergency response and present technological tools available to minimize and/or prevent health impact of smoke episodes. Policies and actions to prevent future uncontrolled wildfires and undesirable land-use fires around the world. Recommendations for future environmental data gathering during smoke episodes and its interpretation/use by public health officials

    III. Expert Meeting

    Title: Expert Meeting on Health Guidelines for Episodic Vegetation Fire Events

    Venue: CEPIS, Lima, Peru

    Time: 6-9 October, 1998

    Objectives:

    1. Review and summarise globally available information and case studies on the health impacts of smoke from vegetation fires;
    2. Review and summarize globally available monitoring data and information from measurement campaigns on vegetation fires;
    3. Review and summarise existing national guidelines of forest fires emergencies;
    4. Review and finalise a draft “WHO Health Guidelines for Episodic Vegetation Fire Events”

     

    Draft Table of Contents

    List of participants

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Report on Early Warning for Fire and Other Environmental Hazards: IV. REFERENCES

 

Report on Early Warning for
Fire and Other Environmental Hazards

 

IV. REFERENCES

Andreae, M.O., and J.G. Goldammer. 1992. Tropical wildland fires and other biomass burning: Environmental impacts and implications for land use and fire management. In: Conservation of West and Central African Rainforests (K.Cleaver et al., eds.), 79-109. World Bank Environ. Paper 1. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Andreae, M.O., J.Fishman, M.Garstang, J.G.Goldammer, C.O.Justice, J.S.Levine, R.J.Scholes, B.J.Stocks, A.M.Thompson, B. van Wilgen, and the STARE/TRACE-A/SAFARI Science Team. 1993. Biomass burning in the global environment: First results from IGAC/BIBEX field campaign STARE/TRACE-A/SAFARI-92. In: Global Atmospheric-Biospheric Chemistry (R.G.Prinn, ed.), 83-101. Plenum Press, New York.

Andrews, P.L. 1991. Use of the Rothermel fire spread model for fire danger rating and fire behaviour prediction in the United States. In N.P. Cheney and A.M. Gill Eds.Conference on Bushfire Modelling and Fire Danger Rating Systems. Proc. 11-12 July 1988, CSIRO Canberra, 1-7.

Anonymous 1995. Forest fire statistics and Declaration on Global Vegetation and Fire Inventories. Int. Forest Fire News No.13, 29-31.

Anonymous 1997. 2nd Wildland Fire Conference ’97. Recommendations. Int. Forest Fire News No.17, 47-48.

ASEAN 1995a. ASEAN Meeting on the Management of Transboundary Pollution, Kuala Lumpur, 14-17 June 1995. ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta (mimeo).

ASEAN 1995b. ASEAN Cooperation Plan on Transboundary Pollution. ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta, 18. p.

ASEAN 1997. Resolution and Recommendations of the ASEAN/AIFM Conference on “Transboundary Pollution and the Sustainability of Tropical Forests: Towards Wise Forest Fire Management” (Kuala Lumpur, Dec. 1996). Proceedings in press. Preprint in: International Forest Fire News No. 16, 55-56.

Baramchikov, Y.N. 1997. Siberian forest insects: Ready for export. In: Exotic pests of eastern forests. Proceedings of a conference, held in Nashville, Tennessee, 8-10 April 1997 (in press).

Brivio, P.A., J.-M. Grégoire, B. Koffi, and G. Ober. 1997. Use of the rose-diagram method for vegetation fire patterns analysis at regional scale in Africa. In: Geoscience and water resources: Environmental data modelling (C. Bardinet and J.J. Royer, eds.), 159-164. Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg.

Burgan, R.E., and R.A. Hartford. 1993. Monitoring vegetation greenness with satellite data. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-297. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 13 p.

Burgan, R.E., R.A. Hartford, and J.C. Eidenshink. 1996. Using NDVI to assess departure from average greenness and its relation to fire business. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-333. Ogden, Utah, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 8 p.

Burgan, R.E., and R.A. Hartford. 1996. Live vegetation moisture calculated from NDVI and used in fire danger rating. In press: 13th Conference on Fire and Forest Meteorology, Lorne, Australia, October 27-31, 1996.International J. Wildland Fire (in press).

Burgan, R.E., R.W. Klaver, and J.M. Klaver. 1997. Fuel models and fire potential from satellite and surface observations (in prep.).

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WHO Workshop on Health Impacts of Haze-related Air Pollution Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1-4 June 1998

WHO Workshop on Health Impacts of Haze-related Air Pollution,

1-4 June 1998, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Summary Report

Objectives of the workshop

The Bi-regional Workshop on Health Impacts of Haze-related Air Pollution was conducted in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia from 1 to 4 June 1998 by the World Health Organization Regional Offices for South-East Asia and the Western Pacific.

The objectives of the workshop were:

  1. to review and summarize research findings and other relevant information concerning the impacts of haze-related air pollution on health;
  2. to identify needs for further technical information and research to support future haze-related decision-making; and
  3. to develop draft health impact reduction measures and strategies, addressing intercountry cooperation issues, for consideration by affected countries and external support agencies.

The workshop was attended by 17 participants and five observers from seven countries of South-East Asia and Papua New Guinea; four temporary advisers; ten representatives from seven international partner agencies; and four WHO staff serving as the workshop secretariat. The proceedings comprised presentations of country reports and haze-related health effects research activities by the participants; presentations of working papers by temporary advisers and representatives of international partner agencies; and plenary and group discussions on future research needs, health impact reduction measures, and intercountry cooperation.

The workshop deliberations produced conclusions in the following four major areas:

A. Conclusions in relation to haze-related air pollution problems and research findings

  1. The haze episodes in South-East Asia in 1997 and early 1998 constituted a substantial health risk to the public.
  2. The main constituent of the haze that adversely affects health is particulate matter.
  3. From the existing body of knowledge that associates a range of adverse, non-cancer health impacts with urban particulate air pollution mixtures, there is no evidence that particles from different combustion sources have different impacts on health.
  4. The risk of long-term health effects due to a single air pollution episode is difficult to detect, but repeated exposures to haze episodes merit attention.
  5. To help ensure data comparability, it is desirable that consistent protocols be followed in relation to health effects monitoring, ambient air quality monitoring, and data analysis
  6. There are a number of valuable health-related research studies currently being carried out in the region.

B. Conclusions in relation to further research needs

In addressing priority environmental health research needs, underlying emphasis always needs to be placed on research and public health monitoring capacity building. The priority needs identified in the region include:

  1. Research on new mitigation approaches:

  • assessment the feasibility of different arrangements for “haze shelters”
  • evaluation of the most effective approaches to management of a future haze emergency in terms of arranging transport to “haze shelters” for vulnerable groups, and other mitigation methods;
  • evaluation of the effectiveness of remaining indoors; and
  • evaluation of the effectiveness of early health care interventions, as well as public information and awareness efforts, in reducing health impacts.

  1. Research on the impacts of the 1997 haze, primarily using data that has been routinely collected:

  • evaluation of short-term health impacts, including the identification of susceptible population groups;
  • a regional study of short-term health impacts using standardized methodologies and routinely-collected data;
  • assessment of any long-term effects in selected groups of exposed people in areas where comprehensive mortality and morbidity data are continuously maintained and
  • identification of sources of particulate air pollution exposure, especially the relative contributions of biomass and motor vehicle-related urban air pollution mixture sources.

  1. Future research requiring the development of substantial new data:

  • an assessment of the real effectiveness of the use of dust masks by the general population;
  • an investigation of the availability of alternatives to masks which could be effective as personal protective equipment in mitigating health impacts;
  • the delineation of the health impact mechanisms associated with biomass air pollution; and
  • an evaluation of the impact of specific pollutants on health (e.g., specific aspects of particulate composition, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and volatile organic compounds).

C. Conclusions in relation to health impact reduction measures/strategies

Priority emphasis must be given to preventing and extinguishing fires.

  1. With regard to air quality monitoring and episode forecasting, from the health sector’s perspective, information on the nature and extent of human exposure to environmental pollutants is essential to impact assessment.
  2. With regard to environmental control, for rural areas, individuals should reduce their level of physical activity and use masks when outdoors in the absence of other available measures. If possible, the infiltration of outdoor air should be reduced by closing windows, doors, etc.
  3. With regard to personal protection, properly sized and fitted respirators can provide protection for essential workers who must remain outdoors for extended periods of time during haze episodes. However, the use of masks for the general population should be the lowest priority in terms of health mitigation measures.
  4. Public health monitoring needs to be considered as a routine component of health sector operations during and after haze episodes.

D. Conclusions in relation to intercountry and interorganizational cooperation and coordination

  1. Intercountry cooperation needs to be implemented through existing regional coordination mechanisms.
  2. Areas in which regional cooperation is suggested include the following:
  • the development of air pollution epidemiology guidelines to harmonize research methodologies and data collection and analysis;
  • the implementation of joint studies on the health impacts of the 1997 haze, including the assessment of needs for air quality monitoring data from a public health point of view;
  • the strengthening of human resources and national capacity in air pollution epidemiology and air pollution and public health monitoring;
  • the establishment of a regional information clearing house on haze-related health impact research; and
  • the organization of regional forums and participation in international meetings.
  1. Proposals for specific projects in the above areas of cooperation will be prepared by participants from countries with interest and expertise.
  2. International and bi-lateral partner agencies are encouraged to take up and support, in a coordinated fashion, the issues reflected in the deliberations of this meeting and summarized in these conclusions.

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14th Committee of Forestry (COFO)

 

14th Committee of Forestry(COFO)

Presentation at COFO Side Meeting on Forest Fires (2 March 1999)

Follow-up Activities in Response to Recommendations From the Fire Meeting

In the four months following the Fire meeting, activities in response to recommendations have tended to concentrate on technical aspects to support policy formulation and implementation. This has been done to establish the groundwork for long-term policy development and to complement and build upon the on-going regular programme activities.

One of the recommendations from the meeting is for an internationally harmonised fire management terminology to support global or regional fire reporting systems.

To help achieve this, FAO is revising the FAO paper No. 70 Wildland Fire Terminology in collaboration with members of the global fire community.

Once fire terminology is agreed upon the recommendation to support the design of a global fire inventory or reporting system is the next sequential step to be taken.

A planning and information assessment for forest fires as a component of forest resource assessment (FRA 2000) is planned which will include a review of existing information sources, identify gaps and provide recommendations for a framework for collecting fire data -including causes of fires at national level.

This will be carried out in collaboration with other agencies responsible for data collation including –UN Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) Timber Committee,- EU, and the Global Fire Monitoring Centre operated through the Fire Ecology Research Group, University of Freiburg.

A decentralised database for Forest Fires in the Mediterranean which is compatible with the existing EU database -is also being realised through the framework of a French trust fund project in support of Silva Mediterranea and the Mediterranean Forest Action Programme.

Through this same French trust fund an analysis of the present situation of community involvement in forest fire prevention and control is being carried out in participating countries which include Cyprus, Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia and Syria.

These analyses will provide a model for six regional case studies on management of forest fire through involvement of local communities, presently being discussed with the fire community.

Training needs in forest fire management are being addressed; -for example in Turkey – training is being carried out through a technical co-operation project (TCP) which has also provided the opportunity to formulate national policies for forest fire management.

Audiovisual training materials for the Mediterranean are also being made available.

Lastly- using limited available funds, regular programme resources are being strengthened for action on environmental emergencies, including forest fires.

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Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

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Food and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations (FAO)

The FAO programme in forestry addresses one of the most important, complex and controversial issues of modern times – how to conserve the world’s forests, while also using trees and forests to contribute to the economic, social and environmental well-being of the world’s rapidly expanding population. Through provision of a neutral forum for policy and technical dialogue; information and advice; and direct technical cooperation, FAO helps member countries to conserve trees, forests and the biological diversity they contain, and sustainably derive products and services from them. 

FAO Forest Fire Website

As part of its forestry programme, for more than 50 years FAO has provided information and technical assistance in the area of forest fire management. For general information on the global fire situation; information on FAO forest fire management activities; and information on the International Meeting on Public Policies Affecting Forest Fires (28-30 October, Rome Italy).

The regional papers and the presentations given at the are available through the FAO and UN bookshops. Bibliographical reference:
FAO (1999). Meeting on Public Policies Affecting Forest Fires, Rome, 28-30 October 1998. FAO Forestry Paper 138. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.

Rome Declaration on Forestry, as adopted by the Ministerial Meeting on Forestry, FAO, 9 March 1999

The FAO convened the Ministerial Meeting on Forestry on “Sustainability Issues in Forestry, the National and International Challenges”, Rome, 8-9 March 1999. On 9 March 1999 the Forest Ministers released the “Rome Declaration on Forestry”. The statements regarding forest fires are based on the resumée “Global Action to Address Forest Fires” which was a summary of the recommendations of the Expert Meeting on Public Policies Affecting Forest Fires.

The Ministerial Meeting, among other, welcomed the

recommendations the Fourteenth Session of the Committee on Forestry (COFO) (Rome, 2 March 1999) and encouraged their endorsement by the FAO Council with a view to facilitating their early implementation.

FAO Global Forest Fire Assessment 1990-2000

The FAO Global Forest Fire Assessment 1990-2000 is part of the FAO Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2000,  Working Paper No. 55 and has been prepared by J.G. Goldammer (The Global Fire Monitoring Center) and Robert W. Mutch (Fire Management Applications).

The report (495 p., PDF-File, size: 6 MB) can be downloaded on the

FAO Fire Website or here on the GFMC.

FAO/ITTO International Expert Meeting on Forest Fire Management
A FAO/ITTO International Expert Meeting on Forest Fire Management was held in Rome, Italy, 7-9 March 2001. The meeting was held in follow-up to the FAO meeting on Public Policies Affecting Forest Fires, held in Rome in October 1998, which identified the need for support to the development of regional and bilateral Agreements for collaboration in forest fire management, including identification of technical and financial inputs; improved sharing of information and knowledge, and support to strengthened technical cooperation among developing countries i.a. through networking and twinning; and identification of the roles which FAO and other international organisations could play in this regard, including technical assistance, institutional support and capacity-building.
The report of the meeting has been published in the pages of International Forest Fire News (IFFN No. 24 – April 2001, p. 78-98).

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Rome Declaration on Forestry, 9 March 1999

 

Rome Declaration on Forestry

9 March 1999

We, the ministers responsible for forests or their representatives who met at FAO Headquarters in Rome, Italy on 8 and 9 March 1999 at the second Ministerial Meeting on Forestry under the sponsorship of the FAO, to consider “Sustainability Issues in Forestry, the National and International Challenges,”

emphasizing the critical importance of forests to the welfare, livelihood and food security of all people and future generations and to the life support system of the entire planet, as set forth in the 1995 Rome Statement on Forestry and in the 1996 World Food Summit Plan of Action,

deeply concerned with the important challenges associated with forest loss and degradation in many regions and stressing the need to maintain the integrity of forests as ecosystems by promoting sustainable forest management worldwide,

noting that this Ministerial Meeting was convened by the Director-General of FAO to highlight the critical need to make national and international progress toward the sustainable management of the world’s forests, and to consider international instruments to support sustainable forest management, global action to address forest fires, and the Strategic Framework for FAO 2000 – 2015,

welcoming the progress made to date on sustainable forest management, including FAO’s role in the assessment of forest resources, and the significant achievements at national, regional and international levels, including the development and implementation of criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management and of national forest programmes,

noting that the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF), which was established under the auspices of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development with a time-limited mandate, is considering issues related to sustainable forest management, including international arrangements and mechanisms,

also noting a range of options for international arrangements and mechanisms to support sustainable forest management, including voluntary, incentive-based approaches; private sector initiatives; regional agreements and initiatives; and global legally binding and non-legally binding instruments,

further noting that a number of international arrangements and mechanisms already exist which address and have implications for the environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainable forest management, and that the need for and nature of future international arrangements and mechanisms should be considered in more depth by the UN Commission on Sustainable Development at its eighth session in the year 2000 as a matter of priority,

recognize that this Ministerial Meeting provides an opportunity to exchange views on international arrangements and mechanisms and provide high level political support to the ongoing discussions at the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests,

call on FAO to facilitate and give support to national, regional and international processes related to forests, especially enhancing the implementation of national forest programmes and criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management,

noting that the causes of forest fires are many and complex and recognizing the need to harness efforts to prevent forest fires as well as to address the multiple causes and consequences of fires around the globe,

welcome the meeting on Public Policies Affecting Forest Fires hosted by FAO in October 1998 and encourage FAO to take action to implement the recommendations directed to it,

call on FAO and other international organizations, donor agencies and interested countries to work together to address the underlying causes of forest fires, to improve the coordination of their efforts to prevent and combat forest fires and to rehabilitate affected areas with a view to providing assistance requested by governments,

noting the draft Strategic Framework for FAO 2000 – 2015 that will be considered by the FAO Conference in November 1999 highlights the critical need for countries to implement integrated approaches to sustainable development, including combatting desertification and drought, which recognize the importance of the sustainable management of forests and their ecosystems in achieving sustainable agriculture and food security,

also noting that forests can be adversely affected by policies outside the forest sector, including agriculture and trade policies, and recognize the need for integrated land use and mutually supportive trade and environment policies in support of sustainable forest management,

underscore the importance of inter-disciplinary and cross-sectoral approaches to forest management, participatory decision making in development taking into account gender balance, and increased cooperation, including through partnerships, between the public and private sectors to achieve sustainable forest management and sustainable development,

encourage national, regional and international efforts to increase public awareness of the importance of forests and strengthen education, research, extension and the dissemination of knowledge and information to improve forest management,

call on all interested parties to give greater priority to sustainable forest management; reaffirm the proposals for action agreed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests regarding international co-operation in financial assistance and technology transfer; recognize the need to build capacity for sustainable forest management in public and private sectors at local, national and international levels; and urge FAO to allocate adequate financial resources to forestry,

welcome the recommendations the Fourteenth Session of the Committee on Forestry (COFO) and encouraged their endorsement by the FAO Council with a view to facilitating their early implementation.

We pledge our political will to bear on improving forest management in our respective countries and to promote effective international cooperation to achieve sustainable forest management worldwide.

We further pledge

  • to work together towards a constructive and forward looking outcome on future arrangements for the global forest policy dialogue at the eighth session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development;

  • to better co-ordinate and strengthen our efforts to prevent, manage, monitor and suppress forest fires especially in anticipation of the next El Niño/La Niña events and, in the longer term, to address the underlying causes of forest fires;

  • to work closely with our counterparts in other ministries in our countries to promote cross-sectoral policies and activities that support sustainable forest management.

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International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) 2

 

Fire Disasters and the
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
(IDNDR)

On 11 December 1987 at its 42nd session, the General Assembly of the United Nations designated the 1990’s as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR)(Resolution 44/236 of 22 December 1989). The concept of this international programme was an initiative of the US Academy of Sciences in 1984. The basic idea behind this proclamation of the Decade was and still remains to be the unacceptable and rising levels of losses which disasters continue to incur on the one hand, and the existence, on the other hand, of a wealth of scientific and engineering know-how which could be effectively used to reduce losses resulting from disasters.

Objectives of the Decade

 The general objective of the Decade is

to reduce through concerted international actions, especially in developing countries, loss of life, property damage and economic disruption caused by natural disasters such as earthquakes, windstorms, tsunamis, floods, landslides, volcanic eruptions, wildfires and other calamities of natural origin such as grasshopper and locust infestations.

The following four goals represent the desired destinations which Decade efforts should lead to:

  1. improve the capacity of each country to mitigate the effects of natural disasters expeditiously and effectively, paying special attention to assisting developing countries in the assessment of disaster damage potential and in the establishment of early warning systems and disaster-resistant structures when and where needed;

  2. devise appropriate guidelines and strategies for applying existing scientific and technical knowledge, taking into account the cultural and economic diversity among nations;

  3. foster scientific and engineering endeavours aimed at closing critical gaps in knowledge in order to reduce loss of life and property;

  4. develop measures for the assessment, prediction, prevention and mitigation of natural disasters through programmes of technical assistance and technology transfer, demonstration projects, and education and training, tailored to specific disasters and locations, and to evaluate the effectiveness of those programmes.

Based on the above broadly defined goals, it was found necessary to focus on a number of specific areas of activities which would mark progress to be achieved at the end of the Decade period.

By the year 2000, all countries, as part of their plan to achieve sustainable development, should have in place:

  1. comprehensive national assessments of risks from natural hazards, with these assessments taken into account in development plans;

  2. mitigation plans at national and/or local levels, involving long-term prevention and preparedness and community awareness, and

  3. ready access to global, regional, national and local warning systems and broad dissemination of warnings.

To date, 120 national IDNDR Commitees and focal points have been established around the world in order to realize the Decade’s objectives. In addition a group of 25 scientific and technical experts selected on the basis of their personal capacities and qualifications and with due to regard to the diversity of disaster mitigation issues and geographical representation constitute the membership of the Scientific and Technical Committee of the IDNDR 1. Their functions include to develop programmes to be taken into account in bilateral and multilateral cooperation and to assess and evaluate the activities carried out in the Decade and to make recommendations on the overall programmmes in an annual report to the Secretary General.

1 One of the members of the International Ad Hoc Group of Experts was Phil Cheney, CSIRO Bushfire Research Unit, Canberra (Australia). He expressed his views in a publication on “Australia’s role in the IDNDR” (Resource and Environmental Studies No.4, Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies, Australian National University, 1991).

 

Wildfires – “Natural Disasters” ?

In the past years there have been various successful examples of how national governments were prepared and the international community responded to disaster management support, e.g. after earthquakes, hurricanes, and floods.

What about wildfires? Are there or have there been any “wildfire disasters”? If so, has any of the goals indicated above been achieved in the sector of wildfire-caused disasters?

In the context of IDNDR, wildfires clearly have been defined as potential natural disasters. However, a global survey carried out by IDNDR shows an interesting picture. Among the 93 nations which responded to an enquiry by IDNDR a total of 49 nations considered wildfires to be an important “Prevailing Hazard” in their country. The remainder of 44 countries did not mention wildfires to be an important natural disaster threat (Tab.1).

 

Tab.1. Extracts from the information provided in national reports to the IDNDR. One of the questions directed to the countries was on “Prevailing Hazards”. In the questionnaire the countries had to state whether wildfires were considered to be a prevailing hazard or not. The total number of responses was 93. Extracted from: WCNDR Information Paper No.2 (April-94) Countries considering wildfires to be a prevailing natural hazard Countries considering wildfires not to be a prevailing natural hazard Algeria
Armenia
Australia
Azerbaijan
Bangladesh
Bermuda
Bhutan
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Canada
China, People’s Republic of
Dominican Republic
Egypt
Finland
Germany
Greece
Guinée, Republic of
Haiti
Hungary
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Latvia
Malaysia
Maldives
Mauritius
Mexico
Micronesia
Mongolia
Namibia
Nepal
Nigeria
Norway
Oman
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russian Federation
Switzerland
Tunisia
Turkey
Union of Myanmar
United States of America
Uzbekistan
Vietnam
Western Samoa Austria
Bolivia
Botswana
British Virgin Islands
Cameroun
Chad
Columbia
Cook Island
Costa Rica
Cuba
Denmark
Ecudaor
Ethiopia
Fiji
Guatemala
Honduras
Iran
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Korea, Republic of
Kyrghyzstan
Mozambique
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Solomon Islands
South Africa
Spain
Sri Lanka
Sudan
Sweden
Tajikistan
Tanzania
Trinidad und Tobago
Turkmenistan
Tuvalu
Ukraine
United Kingdom
Vanuatu
Zaire

 

From another survey on damages caused by significant natural disasters the evaluation of wildfire-related economic and human losses were not clearly to be identified. In the preface to that survey it was defined that a “significant disaster” must meet one of the following criteria:

Damage:  >1% of total annual GNP

Number of affected people:  >1% of the total population

Number of deaths: > 100

It is clear that only a few wildfire disasters meet these criteria in order to be put into the category of “significant” disaster. However, a look to the forest fire statistics from the People’s Republic of China show that throughout the last 40 years more than 100 people annually died in forest fires on an area affected by fire of nearly one million ha per year (Tab.2).

 

Tab.2. The forest fire statistics from the People’s Republic of China for the years 1950-1990 reveal the high loss of human life due to severe wildfires (Source: Ministry of Forestry, Fire Prevention Office, Beijing).

Year Number of Fires Area Burned (x10,000 ha) Human Lives Lost Year Number of Fires Area Burned (x10,000 ha) Human Lives Lost 1950 n.a. 114.50 n.a. 1973 10,143 100.88 65 1951 5,100 225.54 51 1974 16,268 53.88 92 1952 n.a. 58.35 22 1975 13,013 94.08 67 1953 10,784 72.69 37 1976 10,328 194.33 196 1954 25,692 140.02 89 1977 17,290 257.90 133 1955 57,153 248.34 301 1978 11,859 49.30 67 1956 30,704 279.82 203 1979 25,480 99.84 154 1957 25,171 91.14 120 1980 17,608 39.65 95 1958 9,278 33.59 33 1981 12,678 40.96 70 1959 8,113 81.13 62 1982 13,453 33.68 99 1960 11,593 100.43 208 1983 12,300 17.43 111 1961 33,879 152.93 196 1984 12,100 14.18 63 1962 43,321 186.77 187 1985 8,753 13.95 44 1963 32,846 107.11 173 1986 25,851 27.95 237 1964 6,433 19.22 11 1987 12,022 115.26 226 1965 10,913 54.60 78 1988 9,300 6.28 75 1966 5,189 57.85 41 1989 9,747 4.82 55 1967 4,487 30.23 59 1990 5,628 1.44 20 1968 2,338 18.46 12

Long-Term Total and Average Data

1969 7,497 61.42 59

Total
1950-90


606,152
3,712.06
4,137 1970 6,569 76.15 79         1971 8,860 83.01 55 Average per Year 1950-90 15,951
(1953-90) 90.53
(1950-90) 104
(1951-90) 1972 16,411 184.64 187        

* 10,000 ha = 100 km2
n.a. = data not available

 

Wildfires at the UN World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction

A World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction, which forms a part of a mid-term review of Decade activities, was held in Yokohama (Japan) between 23-27 May 1994. The conference was the first of its kind to be held on a global level it was expected to provide a platform for the exchange of experiences between Decade partners at national, regional, and international levels.

During the UN World Conference some technical posters were exhibited, e.g. on new systems on remote sensing of fires (by Finland and Germany). The conference also provided the floor for the public presentation of the film “The Fire Experiment” 2.

The ECE/FAO Team of Specialists on Forest Fire brought the fire issue onto the table of policy makers by presenting a poster and discussing the fire issue in the Technical Committees.

2 The film “The Fire Experiment” is a one-hour film originally produced for the German TV Channel Two (ZDF) and the French-German TV Channel “Arte” and broadcasted on 20 December 1993. The film covers the preparation and execution of a fire experiment in the frame of the Fire Research Campaign Asia-North (FIRESCAN), carried out in July 1993 (see IFFN No.10, p.25-26), a brilliant report on the start of fruitful cooperation in forest fire research between East and West. The background and systematics of fire research are well translated for the general public. The English version of this film which was sponsored by UNESCO and the Foreign Office, Federal Republic of Germany, can be obtained on request from the film producer Schubert Film Production, Leopoldstr.79, D-80802 München (GERMANY), Fax ++49-89-341908 (price for a single copy: DM 198.00; for research institutions, universities, etc. DM 148.00; please request a copy compatible with your TV system, e.g. PAL or NTSC).

 

Proposal to the Annex of the Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World, submitted by the ECE/FAO/ILO Team of Specialists on Forest Fire

Outcome of the Conference

The Yokohama conference clearly recognized the still existing gaps between its vision – as formulated in the begin of the Decade – and reality. This reality is that the goals and targets are far from being achieved as one would expect after half of the Decade has passed by: many of the delegates of the 147 nations represented at the conference commented that 95% of the Decade’s work needs to be done in its second half. 

The conference unanimously accepted the declaration of the “Yokohama Strategy”. The 18-page document gives clear outlines and a plan of action although no specific disaster or action is mentioned in detail.

From the point of view of global cooperation in coping with wildfire-caused disasters, two of the recommended international activities, which were given in order to implement the IDNDR objectives, are of importance:

  • recognition of the need of adequate coordination of international disaster reduction activities and strengthening of the mechanisms established for this purpose. International coordination should relate, in particular, to the formation of development projects which provide assistance for disaster reduction and their evaluation;
  • effective coordination of international disaster management, in particular by the United Nations system, is paramount for an integrated approach to disaster reduction and should, therefore, be strengthened.

Detailed proposals of countries and organizations will be added to the strategy paper in the form of an Annex. As it had been decided at the Meeting of the ECE/FAO Team of Specialists on Forest Fire in Geneva, April 1993, a proposal was directed to the conference and will be part of the Conference Annex (see next page):

With this proposal the ECE/FAO Team of Specialists on Forest Fire intends to open a forum for discussion and further suggestions.

 

Johann G. Goldammer

Leader, ECE/FAO Team of Specialists on Forest Fire
(Address)

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IDNDR: Natural Disaster Reduction in Asia (IFFN No. 20 – March 1999)

 

Natural Disaster Reduction in Asia

(IFFN No. 20 – March 1999)

Organized by the IDNDR, in collaboration with the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) and the Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), the IDNDR-ESCAP Regional Meeting on Natural Disaster Reduction in Asia took place between 23 and 26 February 1999, in Bangkok, Thailand. It was opened by the Deputy Foreign Minister of Thailand, Mr. Sukhumbhand Paribatra. About 200 representatives of governments and organizations from 24 Asian countries attended the Regional Meeting. The Meeting reviewed the accomplishments in the region during the Decade and formulated recommendations for future efforts to ensure continued commitment to disaster prevention throughout Asia during the next millennium. Discussions were held on the economic aspects of water hazards; the urban and environmental aspects of geological hazards; and on fire and transboundary atmospheric hazards. The Bangkok Declaration, adopted at the end of the meeting, underscored the need to integrate mitigation and prevention practices into national development and planning processes. This is expected to enhance community resilience and promote political and socio-economic stability in the event of such disasters. The Declaration also encouraged sustained efforts to harness the considerable traditional knowledge and approaches for dealing with hazards and building up community capabilities and promoting private-public partnerships. Looking beyond the Decade, the Regional Meeting emphasized the need for effective coordination mechanisms within the UN System, as well as within individual countries, to promote disaster reduction and risk management during the 21st century as an integral part of sustainable development.

Bangkok Declaration of the IDNDR-ESCAP Regional Meeting for Asia, 26 February 1999, Bangkok, Thailand

The IDNDR-ESCAP Regional Meeting for Asia: Risk Reduction and Society in the 21st Century was convened at the United Nations Conference Center in Bangkok, Thailand, from 23-26 February 1999, in which more than 150 representatives of national governments, United Nations and other international organizations, technical and scientific programmes, non-governmental and community-based organizations from 24 ESCAP countries participated. The Meeting reviewed the accomplishments in the region during IDNDR and formulated recommendations for future efforts to ensure continued commitment to disaster prevention throughout Asia during the next millennium.

Following the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation adopted at the World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction in 1994, several regional and national initiatives have been taken in Asia. The Regional Meeting noted the active involvement and growing participation in disaster reduction activities within the UN system, and by international organizations, national governments, professional and non-governmental organizations, community bodies, private commercial interests and other stakeholders in civil society. The role of the Asian Disaster Preparedness Center in capacity-building and awareness-raising in the region was notable during the Decade. The establishment of the Asian Disaster Reduction Center was also a significant development during the Decade.

Reflecting the views of the IDNDR Scientific and Technical Committee, the meeting underlined the importance of sustained commitments to disaster prevention by government authorities and others in order to consolidate and further the accomplishments of the Decade relating to national development in the 21st century.

Participants acknowledged that different hazards associated with tropical cyclones, water, geological conditions, wildfire, and severe climatic conditions will continue to threaten all Asian countries. The population pressure and ecological fragility of habitats in the region will aggravate the adverse impact of these hazards. In this context, the Meeting highlighted the need for drawing upon different national experiences, knowledge and professional abilities to prevent disasters. A multi-disciplinary, coordinated approach and greater awareness of policy-makers and communities will help realize appropriate, adequate and sustained allocations of human, technical and material resources for disaster prevention.

The Regional Meeting welcomed the emergence and increasing adoption of policies and practices at international, regional, national and local levels of responsibility for reducing the impact of natural disasters, rather than merely responding to them. Adoption of structured approaches to risk assessment, integration of mitigation and prevention practices into national development and planning processes, including greater commitment to land-use planning measures, and improved early warning systems will not only substantially reduce human suffering and property losses but will enhance community resilience and promote political and socio-economic stability.

The Meeting emphasized the necessity of developing new and effective ways to engage more people dedicated to disaster prevention activities in the course of their on-going work and consistent with their livelihoods throughout Asia. Sustained efforts would have to be taken for harnessing the considerable traditional knowledge and approaches for dealing with hazards and building up community capabilities and promoting private-public partnerships. Regional arrangements should be rendered more effective by ensuring exchanges of information and experience throughout the region. The Meeting recognized the assistance that has already been forthcoming from financial institutions and donors and called upon their continued support to promote the culture of prevention by supporting national disaster reduction plans on a pro-active basis to advance disaster prevention as a public value.

The Regional Meeting welcomed the convening of the IDNDR International Programme Forum and ECOSOC session, in July 1999, in bringing the Decade to a successful conclusion and in evolving recommendations for sustained disaster prevention in the future. The Meeting recognized the Programme Forum as a unique international opportunity for countries, institutions, and organizations to inform the world of the diversity and success of disaster prevention programmes in the region.

Looking beyond the Decade, the Meeting emphasized the need for effective coordination mechanisms within the United Nations system, including at the regional and sub-regional levels, as well as within individual countries, to promote disaster reduction and risk management during the 21st century as integral parts of sustainable development, including responses to global change. These should function in directing efforts to prevent and mitigate disasters due to natural, technological and environmental hazards. In particular, the Meeting urged the Secretary General of the United Nations to set up an appropriate mechanism for bringing about concerted global action. The Meeting also emphasized the importance of continuation of the functioning of the existing regional institutions and frameworks beyond the Decade.

The participants of the IDNDR-ESCAP Regional Meeting for Asia express their recognition of disaster prevention as an integral component of sustainable development in Asia. By this declaration, the Meeting calls for a holistic and integrated effort by all member countries to promote disaster prevention as a public value; to improve integrated risk management through the involvement of an increasing range of professional, technical and scientific disciplines; to strengthen and further regional and sub-regional professional and institutional frameworks; to realize meaningful participation of local communities in reducing the vulnerability of people, the environment, social and economic resources; and to enhance disaster management capabilities.

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IFFN No. 20

 

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