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• Online Publications
  
• Wildland Fire Research Institute Library
• GFMC Fire Bibliographies
  
  

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Fire Management Guidelines and Handbooks

Prepared by GFMC and Partners

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These Fire Management Guidelines and Handbooks have been prepared or published by the Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC) and its partners:

Wildland Fire Management Handbook for Sub-Sahara Africa

This GFMC publication has been prepared by a consortium of 43 contributing authors. Hard copies of the 432-page volume are available for a subsidized price for the African market.

Reference: Goldammer, J.G., and C. de Ronde (eds.). 2004. Wildland Fire Management Handbook for Sub-Sahara Africa. Global Fire Monitoring Center and Oneworldbooks, Freiburg – Cape Town, 432 p. (ISBN 1- 919833-65-X).

Book orders:

Book flyer: Wildland Fire Management Handbook for Subsahara Africa (PDF, 200 KB)
Order form: Fax-Order Form (PDF, 120 KB)
Medium-resolution digital version (PDF, 11 MB)

Guidelines on Safe Fire Management on Contaminated Terrain

In 2014 the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) commissioned the report Best Practices and Recommendations for Wildfire Suppression in Contaminated Areas, with Focus on Radioactive Terrain (Goldammer, J.G., Kashparov, V., Zibtsev, S., Robinson, S., Freiburg-Basel-Kyiv, 53. p.)

• English Version (PDF, 3.1 MB)
• Russian Version (PDF, 3.8 MB)

Health Guidelines for Vegetation Fire Events

At three major planning meetings, the GFMC supported the WHO to prepare guidelines together with a volume with background papers and a teacher’s guide. The volumes aim at contributing to prevent and manage disasters caused by smoke from vegetation fires and to mitigate their effects on human health:

References: Schwela, D.H., J.G. Goldammer, L.H. Morawska, and O. Simpson. 1999. Health Guidelines for Vegetation Fire Events. Guideline document. Published on behalf of UNEP, WHO, and WMO. Institute of Environmental Epidemiology, Ministry of the Environment, Singapore. Double Six Press, Singapore, 291 p.

Goh, K.T., D.H. Schwela, J.G. Goldammer, and O. Simpson. 1999. Health Guidelines for Vegetation Fire Events. Background Papers. Published on behalf of UNEP, WHO, and WMO. Institute of Environmental Epidemiology, Ministry of the Environment, Singapore. Namic Printers, Singapore, 498 p.

Schwela, D.H., L.H. Morawska, and Abu Bakar bin Jafar. 1999. Health Guidelines for Vegetation Fire Events. Teachers’ Guide. Published on behalf of UNEP, WHO, and WMO. Institute of Environmental Epidemiology, Ministry of the Environment, Singapore. Double Six Press, Singapore, 114 p.

Online Publication: https://gfmc.online/programmes/un/who/who.html

ITTO Guidelines on Fire Management in Tropical Forests

The sixth publication in the ITTO Policy Development Series aims to provide practical assistance to member countries as they address issues and develop fire management principles to ensure the protection and sustainable management of tropical forests. The guidelines were drafted under the leadership of the GFMC in 1994 and finalized by a group of experts in 1996.

Reference: International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). 1997. ITTO Guidelines on Fire Management in Tropical Forests. ITTO Policy Development Series No.6. ITTO, Yokohama, 40 p.

Online Publication: https://gfmc.online/programmes/itto/itto.htm

Guidelines on Fire Management in Temperate and Boreal Forests

This FAO Guidelines document was developed under the aegis of GFMC in 2002. The guidelines are considered to be open for discussion and additional inputs that may be included successively.

Online publication: http://www.fao.org/tempref/docrep/fao/009/ag041e/ag041e00.pdf

Alternatively, on the GFMC repository:

• FAO (2002). Guidelines on Fire Management in Temperate and Boreal Forests. Forest Protection Working Papers, Working Paper FP/1/E. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome (PDF, 0.4 MB)

Fire Management Voluntary Guidelines

The UN Fire Management Voluntary Guidelines outline the Principles and Strategic Actions necessary for policy, planning and senior management decision makers to achieve more integrated and cross-sectoral approaches to fire management. The guidelines have been developed in response to the outcomes of the FAO Ministerial Meeting on Forests and the 17th Session of the FAO Committee on Forestry, March 2005 (Rome, Italy 2005), which called upon FAO, in collaboration with countries and other international partners, including the UNISDR, to develop a Strategy to Enhance International Cooperation in Fire Management, that advanced knowledge, increased access to information and resources and explored new approaches to cooperation at all levels. GFMC contributed with inputs from the UNISDR Global Wildland Fire Network.

Online publication: http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/j9255e/j9255e00.htm

Alternatively on the GFMC repository:

• Fire Management Voluntary Guidelines (English Version, PDF, 0.3 MB)

• Fire Management Voluntary Guidelines (French Version, PDF,0.4 MB)

• Fire Management Voluntary Guidelines (Spanish Version, PDF, 0.4 MB)

• Fire Management Voluntary Guidelines (Russian Version, PDF, 0.5 MB)

• Fire Management Voluntary Guidelines (Version for use in FYROM, PDF, 0.7 MB)

Landscape Fire Governance Framework 2023: Guiding Principles for Adjusting Strategies, Policies, and Management to Global Change

In preparation of the 8th International Wildland Fire Conference (Porto, Portugal, May 2023) a team of landscape fire experts developed a paper, which provides background, rationale and guiding principles for improving landscape fire governance. The initial paper “The International Landscape Fire Management Framework: Guiding Principles for Adjusting Policies and Governance to Global Change” was later entitled:

• Landscape Fire Governance Framework 2023: Guiding Principles for Adjusting Strategies, Policies, and Management to Global Change (English) (PDF)
• Landscape Fire Governance Framework 2023: Guiding Principles for Adjusting Strategies, Policies, and Management to Global Change (Portuguese) (PDF)
• Landscape Fire Governance Framework 2023: Guiding Principles for Adjusting Strategies, Policies, and Management to Global Change (French) (PDF)

Handbook on Forest Fire Control: A Guide for Trainer

The Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) has supported the implementation of the Voluntary Guidelines for Fire Management by financing the review of the “Handbook on Forest Fire Control, A Guide for Trainers” to incorporate the more holistic approaches. The “Handbook on Wildland Fire Management for Trainers” will target field trainers/instructors, and thus complement the other recent Wildland Fire Management Handbooks; for Sub-Sahara Africa (2004), for North-East Asia (2006) in Russian, produced by the UNISDR and the Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC). This handbook production was supported by GFMC.

Reference: Heikkila, T.V., R. Gronqvist, and M. Jurvélius. 2007. Wildland Fire Management: Handbook for Trainers. Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland, Development Policy Information Unit. Helsinki, Finland, 236 p. (ISBN-13: 978-951-724-581-4)

• Online publication: Wildland Fire Management: Handbook for Trainers (PDF, 12 MB)

In 2013, an updated version of the handbook was published in Russian with the editorial support by Andrey M. Eritsov (Aerial Fire Center of Russia Avialesookhrana):

Reference: Heikkilä, T., R. Grönqvist, M. Jurvélius and J.G. Goldammer. 2013. Handbook on Forest Fire Control (in Russian). Pushkino, Helsinki and Freiburg, 269 p.

• Online publication: Handbook on Forest Fire Control (in Russian) (PDF, 14.5 MB)

Defense of Villages, Farms and Other Rural Assets against Wildfires: Guidelines for Rural Populations, Local Communities and Municipality Leaders in the Balkan Region

In many regions globally rural settlements (villages, towns, scattered farmsteads) and other rural assets (agricultural fields / crops, infrastructures and other values at risk) are increasingly endangered by wildfires. This trend is driven by the consequences of land-use change, regional climate change and particularly by the rural exodus, which has resulted in the weakening of rural workforce and self-protection ability and increasing wildfire hazard on abandoned lands. In order to enhance the capabilities of local rural communities to defend themselves against wildfires a set of guidelines was developed for the Balkans as a pilot region, designed to be adapted to the conditions of other regions and countries as deemed appropriate:

• https://gfmc.online/manag/CBFiM_11.htm

Russian Handbooks Published by Greenpeace of Russia and the Aerial Forest Fire Center of Russia Avialesookhrana

The following two publications have been prepared after the 2010 fire season. The first publication by Greenpeace includes recommendations for organizing volunteer fire brigades, how to use and observe regulations, and information on fire centers and other services.

• Greenpeace Russia Handbook for Fire Management in Peatlands (2020) (Russian) (PDF, 30 MB)
• Greenpeace Russia Handbook for Fire Management in Peatlands (2020) (English version, published in 2022) (PDF, 30 MB)

Another Handbook for Volunteers Fire Brigades has been developed jointly by Greenpeace of Russia and the Aerial Forest Fire Center Avialesookhrana of the Federal Forestry Agency of Russia. This handbook consists of information about forest fires, rules, and regulations, firefighting tactics and methods, equipment, firefighter safety, etc. A special chapter is on first medical care.

• Greenpeace and Avialesookhrana Handbook for Voluntary Fire Brigades in Russia (Second edition 2014, PDF, 4.0 MB)

With accelerating land-use change and climate change in temperate-boreal Eurasia the properties of organic terrain, which has accumulated in wetlands (moors, mires, and peat and turf lands), are gradually changing and becoming increasingly flammable. This is especially the case in wetlands that have been drained in the 19th and 20th centuries. After the severe drought and widespread wildfires in Western Russia in 2010, which had penetrated desiccated organic terrain and caused severe damages of biodiversity and air quality, the Greenpeace Russia Fire Programme and the All-Russian Institute of Continuous Education in Forestry (ARICEF) developed a manual with recommendations for fire management in peatlands. The first edition of the handbook was published 2015. An updated version was published in 2020:

• Greenpeace Russia Handbook for Fire Management in Peatlands (2020) (PDF, 30 MB)

Manual for the Control of Fire in Peatlands and Peatland Forest

This Manual for the Control of Fire in Peatland and Peatland Forest contains information on (1) fire control, (2) factors which support fire, (3) government policy on fire control, and (4) strategies and techniques for the control of land and forest fires in peatland areas. The information presented in this book, besides including a variety of concepts and practical measures for the prevention and suppression of fire already written/presented by others, also contains ideas and recent field experience of the writers in the handling of land and forest fires in peatland areas of Kalimantan and Sumatera. The writing of this book has been funded by CIDA (Canadian International Development Agency) through the CCFPI project (Climate Change, Forests and Peatlands in Indonesia), and is produced by Wetlands International – Indonesia Programme in cooperation with Wildlife Habitat Canada.

Reference: Adinugroho W.C., I Nyoman N. Suryadiputra, Bambang H. Saharjo, and Labueni Siboro. 2005. Manual for the Control of Fire in Peatlands and Peatland Forest. Climate Change, Forests and Peatlands in Indonesia Project. Wetlands International Indonesia Programme and Wildlife Habitat Canada. Bogor, Indonesia, 162 p. ISBN: 979-99373-7-X (Wetlands International – Indonesia Programme).

• Online publication: Manual for the Control of Fire in Peatlands and Peatland Forest (PDF, 1.7 MB)

Manejo del Fuego (in Spanish, by Marcos Pedro Ramos Rodriguez, Universidad de Pinar del Rio, Cuba, 2010)

Este libro contiene informacion sobre: (1) Fuego y medio ambiente (2) Comportamiento del fuego (3) Proteccion contra incendios forestales (4) Evaluacion de los efectos provocados los incedios forestales, sumarizando de forma detallada las tecnicas y habilidades tanto para el manejo del fuego como para el combate de incendios forestales en general.

• Manejo del Fuego (Fire Management), by Marcos Pedro Ramos Rodriguez, Universidad de Pinar del Rio, Cuba, 2010 (in Spanish, 240 p.) (PDF, 4.6 MB)

Guidelines and Manual of Procedures for Community-Based Fire Management (Ghana)

These guidelines have been produced in the frame of the ITTO-supported project “Fire-Management and Post-Fire Restoration with Local Community Collaboration in Ghana” (2005-2010) and call for wide application in West Africa and beyond:

• Guidelines and Manual of Procedures for Community-Based Fire Management (Ghana) (PDF, 6.4 MB)

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Feuer in Waldökosystemen derTropen und Subtropen

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Anonymus 1896. Provinciale Verordening van de Preanger-Regentschappen betreffende Maatregeln ter voorkoming van boschbranden (Provincial regulation of the Preanger Regencies concerning measures for the prevention of forest fires). Javasche Courant, 14. January 1896, No. 4, 2 p. (in Dutch)

Anonymus 1902. Verordering op het branden van alang-alang en andere aanplantingen op woeste granden in het rechtstreeks besstuurd gebied des Residentie Amboina (Regulation on burning of alang-alang and other plantations on waste lands in the area under the administration of the Residency Ambon). Javasche Courant, 1902, No. 8, p. 1. (in Dutch).

Anonymus 1904. Verstag van den Dienst van het Boschwezen in Nederlandsch-Indie over het jaar 1903. Deel I. algemeen verslag. (1903 annual report of the Forest Service in the Dutch East Indies. Part I. General Report.) Unpubl., 32 pp. (in Dutch).

Anonymus 1905a. Fire protection in Madras. Extract from Resolution Forest No. 76, dated 24th March 1905. Ind. For. 31, 584-594.

Anonymus 1905b. Eucalyptus screens as fire protection belts. Ind. For. 31, 297.

Anonymus 1905c. The prohibition of grass burning and its effect on the game of the country. Ind. For. 31, 301-306.

Anonymus 1906a. Verodering op het branden van alang-alang en andere beplantingen op woeste en bebouwde prarden in de afdeeling Grooth Atjeh) (Regulation on burning of alang-alang grass and other plantations on waste and cultivated lands in the division of Great Aceh). Javasche Courant, 9 March 1906, p. 1 (in Dutch).

Anonymus 1906b. Concerning Bongas and fire-protection. Ind. For. 32, 413-414.

Anonymus 1910. Conference of forest officers on fire-protection held at Poona on July 15th and 16th, 1909. Ind. For. 36, 562-566.

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Anonymus 1984. Plan Quinquennal (1986-1990). Première Partie: Les Forêts et la Production Forestière. Ministère de l’Agriculture et des Eaux et Forêts, Direction des Eaux et Forêts. République de Côte d’Ivoire.

Aoki, M., K. Yabuki and H. Koyama 1978. Micrometeorology of Pasoh forest. Malay. Nat. J. 30, 149-160.

Arfandi, H. 1984. The effect of erosion, surface flows on the nitrogen disappearance after fire [in Indonesian]. Unpubl. S 1 Thesis, Forestry Faculty, Mulawarman University, Samarinda.

Armitage, F.B. and J. Burley (eds.) 1980. Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon (Syn. P.khasya Royle; P.insularis Endlicher). Com. For. Inst., Trop. For. Pap. 9, Oxford.

Arno, S.F. and A.E. Wilson 1986. Dating past fires in Curlleaf Mountain-mahogany communities. J. Range Manage 39, 241-243.

Ashton, P.S. 1969. Speciation among tropical forest trees: some deductions in the light of recent evidence. Biol. J. Linnean Soc. 1, 155-196.

Ashton, P.S. 1988. Dipterocarp biology as a window to the understanding of tropical forest structure. Ann. Rev. Ecol. System. 19, 347- 370

Ashton, P.S. 1989. Species richness in tropical forests. In: Tropical forests. Botanical dynamics, speciation and diversity (C.B.Holm-Nielsen, I.C.Nielsen and H.Balslev, eds.), 239-251. Academic Press, London, 380 p.

Athias, F., G.Josens and P.Lavelle 1975. Influence du feu de brousse annuel sur le peuplement endogé de la savane de Lamto (Côte d’Ivoire). In: Proc. 5th Int. Coll. Soil Zoology, 389-397, Prague, 1973.Auer, V. 1933. Verschiebungen der Wald- und Steppengebiete Feuerlands in postglazialer Zeit. Acta Geogr. 5 (2), Helsinki.

Auer, V. 1939. Der Kampf zwischen Wald und Steppe auf Feuerland. Petermanns Geogr. Mitt., Heft 6, 193-197.

Auer, V. 1958. The Pleistocene of Fuego-Patagonia. P.II. Ann. Acad. Sci. Fenn. Ser.A 3(50). Helsinki.

Australien Forestry Council 1984. The 1982/83 bushfires: implications for national cooperation and coordination based on direct State and Territory forest service experience. Standing Committee of Forestry Rep., 19 p.

Baader, E.J. 1989. Pityogenes spp. (Col., Scolytidae): Untersuchungen über verhaltenssteuernde Duftstoffe und deren Anwendung im Waldschutz. J. Appl. Ent. 107, 1-31.

Bappenas (Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional) 1992. International Workshop on Long-Term Integrated Forest Fire Management in Indonesia, Bandung, 17-18 June 1992.Bappenas, Jakarta.

Barnola, J.-M., D. Raynaud, Y.S. Koroikevich and C. Lorius 1987. Vostok ice core provides 160,000-year record of atmospheric CO2. Nature 329, 408-414.

Barnola, J.M., P. Pimienta, D. Raynaud and Y.S. Korotkevich 1991. CO2-climate relationship as deduced from the Vostock ice core: a re-examination based on new measurements and on a re-evaluation of the air dating. Tellus 43 B, 83-90.

Barrington, A.H.M. 1931. Forest soil and vegetation in the Hlaing Forest Circle, Burma. Burma For. Bull. 25, Ecol. Ser. M., Govt. Printing and Stationary, Rangoon.

Bartlett, H.H. 1955 (1957, 1961). Fire in relation to primitive agriculture and grazing in the tropics: annotated bibliography. Vol. 1-3. Mimeo Publ. Univ. Mich. Bot. Gardens, Ann. Arbor.

Batchelder, R.B. and H.F. Hiri 1966. Fire in tropical forests and grasslands. US Army Natick Lab. Tech. Rep. 67-41-ES. 380p.

Batchelder, R.B. 1967. Spatial and temporal patterns of fire in the tropical world. Proc. Tall Timbers Fire Ecol. Conf. 6, 171-190. Tallahassee, Florida.

Berkhout, A.M. 1886. Branden in djatie-bosschen. In: Houtsprokkelingen. (Burning in teak forests. In: Wood pickings.) Tijdschr. Nijverheid & Landbouw in Nederl. Indie 32, 196-197 (in Dutch).

Berlage, H.P. 1957. Fluctuations in the general atmospheric circulation of more than one year, their nature and prognostic value. K. Ned. Meteor. Inst. Meded. Verh. 69, 152 pp.

Betancourt, J.L. and T.R. van Devender 1981. Holocene vegetation in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. Science 214, 656-658.

Beumée, J.G.B. 1919 a. Over bastverwondingen aan den djati. (On bark injuries to teak). Meded. Proefstat. Boschwez. 4, 31-54.

Beumée, J.G.B. 1919 b. De korte flora der djati-bosschen. (The low flora of the teak forests.) Tectona 12, 146-205.

Beven, S., E.F. Connor and K. Beven 1984. Avian biogeography in the Amazon basin and the biological model of diversification. J. Biogeogr. 11, 383-399.

Bhote, A.D. 1954. Forest fires. Letters to the Editor. Ind. For. 80, 117.

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Blasco, F. 1983. The transition from open forest to savanna in continental Southeast Asia. In: Tropical savannas (F. Bourlière, ed.), 167-181. Elsevier Sci. Publ. Co., Amsterdam, 730 p.

BML (Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten) 1990. Der Treibhauseffekt. Gegenmaßnahmen und Anpassungsstrategien unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Wälder der gemäßigten Zonen. BML Schriftenreihe Angew.Wiss. H.387. Landwirtschaftsverlag, Münster-Hiltrup, 71 p.

Bock, C. 1881. The head-hunters of Borneo: a narrative of travel up the Mahakam and down the Barito; also journeyings in Sumatra. First published by Sampson Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington, London (1881)- Reprint 1985. Singapore Oxford University Press, Oxford-New York, XIII+344 p.Boer, CH. 1984. Study on the degree of damage due to forest fire in Long Nah, S. Kelinjan, and S. Separi, East Kalimantan (in Indonesian). Unpubl. S 1 Thesis IPB Bajor, 194 p.

Boer, CH., P. Matius and M. Sutisna 1988a. Suksesi setelah kebakaran hutan primer di hutan pendidikan. Lempake, Samarinda, Kalimantan Timur. Report, Fakultas Kehutanan, University of Mulawarman, 41 p.

Boer, CH., P. Matius and M. Sutisna 1988 b. Succession after fire in the Lempake primary forest near Samarinda, East Kalimantan. GFG-Report 11, 27-34.

Bolin, B., B. Döös, J. Jäger and R.A. Warrick (eds.) 1986. The greenhouse effect, climatic change and ecosystems. SCOPE 29, Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 539 p.

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Brandis, D. 1879 a. Suggestions regarding the management of the forests included in the Forest School Circle, North-Western Provinces. Dat. Camp. Jorehant, Assam. Datiert 20.3.1879. Govt. Centr. Branch Press, Simla, III + 41 p. + App.

Brandis, D. 1879 b. The utilization of less valuable woods in the fire protected forests of the Central Provinces, by iron-making. Ind. For. 5, 222-225.

Brandis, D. 1881. Suggestions regarding the management of leased forests of Busáhir in the Sutlej Valley of Punjab. Datiert 1.10.1881. Govt. Centr. Branch Press, Simla, I + 26 p.

Brandis, D. 1884. Ueber Brandwirtschaft in den Bergen Ostindiens, namentlich in Burma. Allg. Forst- u. J. Ztg. 60, 377-386.

Brandis, D., 1896. Die Familie der Dipterocarpaceen und ihre geographische Verbreitung. Sitzungsber. Niederrheinische Ges. Natur- u. Heilkunde I., Teil A, 4-42. Bonn.

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Brinkmann, W.K.F. and J.C. de Nascimento 1973. The effect of slash and burn on the germination of seeds at different soil depths of various tropical tree species. Turrialba 23, 284-290.

Brookman-Amissah, J., J.B. Hall, M.D. Swaine and J.Y. Attakoram 1980. A re-assessment of a fire protection experiment in northeastern Ghana savanna. J. Appl. Ecol. 17, 85-99.Brooks, R.H. 1971. Human response to recurrent drought in north-eastern Brazil. Prof. Geogr. 23, 40-44.

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Bryant, F.B. 1907. Fire conservancy in Burma. Ind. For. 33, 537-549.

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Burgess, P.F. 1975. Silviculture in the hill forests of the Malay Peninsula. Malay. For. Dep. Res. Pamph. 66

Burschel, P., C. Gallegos, O.Martinez y W. Moll 1976. Composición y dinamica de un bosque virgen mixto de raulí y coigue. Bosque (Valdivia, Chile) 1, 55-74.

Burschel, P. und M. Weber 1990. Wald und Treibhauseffekt. Wird die Rolle von Forst- und Holzwirtschaft unterschätzt ? In: Treibhauseffekt und Wald, 16-45. Schriftenreihe Stiftung Wald in Not, Bd.5, Bonn, 48 p.

Busse, W. 1908. Die periodischen Grasbrände im tropischen Afrika, ihr Einfluß auf die Vegetation und ihre Bedeutung für die Landeskultur. Mitt. Dtsch. Schutzgebiete 21, 113-139.

Byram, G.M. 1959. Combustion of forest fuels. In: Forest fire: control and use (K.P. Davis, ed.) p. 61-89. McGraw Hill, New York.

Caleda, A.A. and V.P. Veracion 1963. Destructive insect pests of Benguet pine (Pinus insularis Endl.). Forestry Leaves 14 (1), 19-20.

California Department of Forestry 1990. Bibliography and directory of remote sensing of wildland fires. Cal. Dept. For. and Fire Protection, Sacramento, CA, in coop. with Fire Res. Inst., Roslyn, WA, 124 p.

Champion, H.G. 1919. Observations on some effects of fires in the Chir (Pinus longifolia) forests of the West Almora Division. Indian Forester 55, 353-364.

Champion, H.G. and F.C. Osmaston (eds.) 1962. E.P. Stebbing’s “The Forests of India”, Vol. IV, being the history from 1925 to 1947 of the forests now in Burma, India and Pakistan. Oxford Univ. Press, London, 485 p.

Chandler, C., P. Cheney, P. Thomas, L. Trabaud and D. Williams 1983. Fire in forestry. Vol. I and II. John Wiley, New York, 450 and 298 p.

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