in – GFMC

India: Forest Fire Prevention and Control Strategies (IFFN No. 20)

Forest Fire Prevention and Control Strategies in India

(IFFN No. 20 – March 1999, p. 5-9)

Abstract

Forestry is in the concurrent list of the constitution of India. Both the central the state Governments can make laws relating to forest management. Forest fire prevention is an important function of the Forest Protection Division in the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. This paper gives in brief the mandate of the Union and State Governments on forest fire prevention and control measures, methods adopted by the various agencies in forest fire prevention, detection and control. The Government of India proposes to effectively monitor forest fire incidences in the country in order to create sound data base and quick detection infrastructure. It is also proposed to set up a National Institute of Forest Fire Management in the country for proper research, extension of technology and training of personnel.

Introduction

The total geographic area of the country is 328.7 million ha. out of which the recorded forest cover is 76.50 million ha. The Forest cover thus, constitute 23.4% of the total geographic area of the nation. As per the latest state of forests report of the Forest Survey of India (FSI 1997), the actual forest cover exists only over 19.27% of the geographic area (63.3 million ha) out of which only 38 million ha of forests are well stocked (crown density >40%). The forests of India are endowed with rich fauna and flora. The plant wealth of India is about 45,000 species (12% of the global plant wealth). The standing timber stock in the country is estimated at 4740 million m3, and the annual increment of the forests is estimated to 87.62 million m3.

This resource has to meet the demand of a population of 950 million people and around 450 million cattle. As such, country has to meet the needs of 16% of the world’s population from 1% of the world forest resources. The same forest has also to cater for the 19% of the world cattle population.

The forests of the country are, therefore, under tremendous pressure. On the one hand the poor are heavily dependent on the forests for their subsistence needs, on the other, the growing liberalisation, industrialisation and fast spreading economic activities at the national and regional levels are putting pressure on the resource base. Over the years country’s forests have suffered serious depletion due to unrelenting pressure from increased demand for fuelwood, fodder, timber, inadequacy of protection and diversion of forest lands to agriculture and pastoral uses etc.

Fig. 1. Open southern tropical dry deciduous forest in Central India (Maharashtra State): Frequent fires burning through these stands prevent the development of fire-sensitive trees and favour fire-tolerant species. Photo: J.G.Goldammer (GFMC)

Forest Fire Damages in India

Forest fires are a major cause of degradation of India’s forests. While statistical data on fire loss are weak, it is estimated that the proportion of forest areas prone to forest fires annually ranges from 33% in some states to over 90% in others. About 90% of the forest fires in India are started by humans. Forest Fires cause wide ranging adverse ecological, economic and social impacts. In a nutshell, fires cause

Loss of valuable timber resources and depletion of carbon sinks
Degradation of water catchment areas resulting in loss of water
Loss of biodiversity and extinction of plants and animals
Loss of wild life habitat and depletion of wild life
Loss of natural regeneration and reduction in forest cover and production
Global warming resulting in rising temperature
Loss of carbon sink resource and increase in percentage of CO2 in the atmosphere
Change in micro climate of the area making it unhealthy living conditions
Soil erosion affecting productivity of soils and production
Ozone layer depletion
Health problems leading to diseases
Indirect affect on agricultural production: Loss of livelihood for the tribals as approximately 65 million people are classified as tribals who directly depend upon collection of non-timber forest products from the forest areas for their livelihood.

India has about 1.7 million hectares of productive coniferous forests with such valuable timber and pulpwood species as fir (Abies spp.), spruce (Picea smithiana), deodar (Cedrus deodara), kail and chir pine (Pinus wallichiana and P.roxburghii). The estimated growing stock of these forests is over 200 million cubic metres the monetary value of which could be anywhere between Rs.40,000 to Rs.60,000 million (US$ 976 to 1464 million). In other states precious deciduous forests rich in bio-diversity get largely damaged by forest fires. The forests of North-East region of the country are hotspots of biodiversity. To safeguard these precious forests and their value, it is necessary to have more rigorous protection from fire damage than that has been accorded hitherto.

Major Forest Fire Disasters in India During the Past few Years

The normal fire season in India is from the month of February to mid June. India witnessed the most severe forest fires in the recent time during the summer of 1995 in the hills of Uttar Pradesh & Himachal Pradesh. The fires were very severe and attracted the attention of whole nation. An area of 677,700 ha was affected by fires. The quantifiable timber loss was around Rs. 17.50 crores (US$ 43 million; Rs. 1 crore = 10 million rupees). The loss to timber increment, loss of soil fertility, soil erosion, loss of employment, drying up of water sources and loss to bio-diversity were not calculated by the Committee appointed by the Government to enquire into the causes of fires, as these losses are immeasurable but very significant from the point of view of both economy as well as ecology. The fires in the hills resulted in smoke in the area for quite a few days. The smoke haze, however, vanished after the onset of rains. These fires caused changes in the micro-climate of the area in the form of soil moisture balance and increased evaporation. Lack of adequate manpower, communication and, water availability in the hills helped this fire spread rapidly reaching the crown level. The thick smoke spread over the sky affecting visibility up to 14,000 feet.

Estimation of Losses from Forest Fires

The statistics on forest fire damage are very poor in the country. In the absence of proper data, it is difficult to arrive at the accurate losses from the forest fires. Moreover, the losses from fires in respect of changes in biodiversity, carbons sequestration capability, soil moisture and nutrient losses etc. can not be measured but, nevertheless, are very significant from the point of view of ecological stability and environmental conservation. To a certain extent, the loss due to forest fires can be estimated based on the inventories made by the FSI as reported in the state of forest report 1995 and subsequent field observations conducted by them. The statistics of losses from forest fires from the various states of the union is still very sketchy and fragmented. Much of the data available does not reflect the ground situation and is grossly under reported. The total reported loss from the states of the union is around Rs 35 crores (US$ 7.3 million) annually.

The Forest Survey of India, data on forest fire attribute around 50% of the forest areas as fire prone. This does not mean that country’s 50% area is affected by fires annually. Very heavy, heavy and frequent forest fire damages are noticed only over 0.8%, 0.14% and 5.16% of the forest areas respectively. Thus, only 6.17% of the forests are prone to severe fire damage. In the absolute term, out of the 63 million ha of forests an area of around 3.73 million ha can be presumed to be affected by fires annually. At this level the annual losses from forest fires in India for the entire country have been moderately estimated at Rs 440 crores (US$ 107 million). This estimate does not include the loss suffered in the form of loss of biodiversity, nutrient and soil moisture and other intangible benefits. Based on the UNDP project evaluation report of 1987, the benefits of pilot project at todays’ prices if 40 million ha of forests are saved annually from forest fires due to implementation of modern forest fire control methods the net amount saved at todays’ prices would come to be Rs 280 crores (US$ 6.8 million).

Fig. 2. The annually occurring surface fires in the open deciduous forests are carried by the grass and leaf litter layer. Many forest sites are burned over two or three times per year. Photo: J.G.Goldammer (GFMC)

Forest Fire Prevention in India

The subject of forests is in the concurrent list of the Constitution of India. The Central Government and State Governments are both competent to legislate on the issue. The issues relating to policy planning and finance is the primary responsibility of the Government of India. The field administration of the forests is the responsibility of the various state governments. The state Government thus have the direct responsibility of the management of forest resources of the country. The fire prevention and control measures are, therefore, carried out by the state forest departments. Each State and Union Territory has its own separate forest department. At the Government of India level, Inspector General of Forests & Special Secretary to the Government of India is the head of the professional forest service in the country. Inspector General of Forests & Special Secretary is assisted by additional Inspector General of Forest and Deputy Inspector Generals. Forest Fire prevention is looked after by the Forest Protection Division in the Ministry, which is headed by a Deputy Inspector General of Forests. The Ministry is implementing a plan scheme “Modern Forest Fire Control Methods” in India under which the state governments are provided financial assistance for fire prevention and control.

India has a history of scientific forest management for over 130 years. Forestry practices have been developed for a large number of forest types and species in India. The forests are managed through well prepared forest working plans and fire prevention and control has always constituted an important component of the working plan. Mostly, the prescriptions relate to employing traditional practices like creation and maintenance of fire lines, fire tracks, control burning, engaging fire watchers during the fire seasons etc. The villagers situated in and around forest areas are also legally supposed to assist the forest department staff in extinguishing the fires. These methods proved quite effective in controlling forest fires in the country, but gradually due to population pressure on forests and resultant conflicts and resource hunger, it became difficult to check forest fires in India through these methods. More and more biotic pressure increased the fire incidences resulting in poor regeneration in forest areas. In view of this, it was felt necessary to implement a modern forest fire fighting regime in the country. A UNDP project was implemented during 1985 to 1990 in the country to address the problem of resource damage from uncontrolled forest fires. The project primarily focused on involving a systematic approach to deal with forest fire damages through tapping of the knowledge gained by some developed countries in preventing, detecting and suppressing forest fires, and its transfer to India. Under this project, a pilot project was launched in two states viz: Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra, where severe fires had affected around 50% of the forest area. The two states offered different ecological and physical characteristics and therefore, offered a good opportunity to try the technologies of forest fire prevention and control.

The project yielded excellent results both from the angle of technical suitability and economic efficiency. It clearly demonstrated that the fire incidents can be reduced drastically as in some cases the incidents were reduced by 90% in selected areas.

Based on the success of this project, the Government of India, Ministry of Environment & Forests initiated a scheme entitled “Modern Forest Fire Control Methods” since 1992-93. The scheme was launched during the 8th Plan period in 11 states where the major forest fires occur. The project covered 60% of the forest areas of the country. Under the scheme, the Government provided financial assistance to state forest departments for procurement of hand tools, fire resistant clothes and fire fighting equipments, wireless sets, construction of fire watch towers, fire finders, creation of fire lines and for research, training and publicity on fire fighting. Under the Central Government an air operation wing was maintained. The project has been continuing during the 9th plan period (1997-2002) and four more states are being added to the list. The Central component of the scheme envisages closing the Air Operation Wing (as it is felt to strengthen the traditional and cost effective methods) and introducing a component of close monitoring of forest fires for creation of data base through Forest Survey of India and involvement of research institutes and other agencies for generating more information on forest fires for better planning and management. Yet another dimension is being added to the project by involving the village forest protection committees constituted under the Joint Forest Management (JFM) programme. The JFM programme is being implemented in 22 states through 35,000 village forest protection committees over an area of 7 million ha. It is proposed to invoke the people’s interest and enlist their support for fire prevention and fire fighting operations. The Government is considering setting up of a National Institute of Forest Fire Management with satellite centres in different parts of India to bring the latest forest fire fighting technologies to India through proper research, training of personnel and technology transfer on a long-term basis. Notwithstanding the existing efforts, it is still felt that there is an acute shortage of resources for forest fire prevention, detection, and control and also for research, training and equipments. All attempts need to be made to obtain more financial resources and technical assistance within the country and also to tap the external funding sources for developing permanent fire fighting capabilities.

V.K.Bahuguna
Deputy Inspector General of Forests Ministry of Environment & Forests
Government of India
Paryavaran Bhawan, C.G.O. Complex
Lodhi Road
New-Delhi 110 003
INDIA Fax: ++91-11-436-3232

IFFN No. 20
Country Notes
Specials

24. November 2017/by GFMCadmin

India: Controlling Forest Fire Incidences by Generating Awareness (IFFN No. 20)

Controlling Forest Fire Incidences by Generating Awareness
A Case Study from Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, Coimbatore, India

(IFFN No. 20 – March, p. 10-15)

The peninsular India constitutes one of the mega biodiversity zones of the world which is abundant with unique and diversified floral and faunal wealth. The prevailing tropical climate coupled with physical and environmental factors have unitedly evolved impact on resources pattern and many eco-subsystems which is highly complex and fragile in nature. The land ecosystem is facing mounting problems in the cruel hands of human beings. One of the causative factors is forest fire, either natural or man-made, which periodically covers larger areas in the tropics destroying timber, other properties and life beyond measures.

In India the ecosystems are under severe threat due to the recurrent fires apart from the anthropogenic pressure on the forests which is attributed to the degradation, soil erosion, reduced productivity etc. Every year some or other part of the forests in India is facing the agony in the cruel hands of mankind by putting fire intentionally in the forests which causes severe damages to the regeneration as well as the soils.

Forest fires and indiscriminate grazing are among the most important factors that affect natural regeneration in the forests. According to the Forest Survey of India, an average of 54.7% of forests are affected by fire and 72.1% of the forest area is subjected to grazing. More than 95% of the forest fire incidents in India are human-caused, the main fire starters being the graziers.

In India forest fires are a significant and one of the increasing contributory factors in this degradation process, although the extent of total damage is widely disputed. According to the study by Srivastava, during the sixth five year plan (1980-85) 17,852 fires were reported affecting an area of 5.7 million ha or an annual average of some 1.14 million ha (Sangal 1989). Even this range may be regarded as conservative. Data collected by the Forest Survey of India indicate that the forest area that is affected by annual fires may be as high as 37 million ha (Ministry of Environment & Forests, 1987).

Forest fire and its management have long history in Indian forestry. The traditional method of fire protection in the past was used to be an elaborate network of fire lines, block lines, and guidelines. Though it was successful when the population pressure was low, it no longer works effectively against the will of the person to put fire now-a-days. Therefore intensive management to prevent, detect and suppress forest fires is the need of the hour by evolving latest strategies to protect the environment and the atmosphere, with the use of modern fire equipments and other mechanical aids, apart from involving local people by creating awareness in regard to biodiversity.

The existing human resources pattern in the forest department at present disproportionate with its vastness in extent and undulation to be handled by the forest staff against illicit cutting, poaching, sandalwood smuggling and more so from forest fire. On an average 500 ha of forests have to be patrolled by one forest guard, and it does not seem to be likely that this human resource will be sufficient to detect and prevent all forest fires.

The forests of India are characterized by high biodiversity with approximately 35,000 plant species and 75,000 animal species. India is also a place where scientific forestry has been in practice for more than 130 years. From time immemorial, forests were looked upon both tangible and intangible benefits. However, from the 1970’s the stress or focus on tangible benefits has slowly shifted to indirect aspects of forests such as environmental and ecological benefits. From 1972 Stockholm Conference onwards, the central theme of every department issue is on environment and ecology. This does not mean that the production aspects of forestry are less important. India has approximately one fifth of the land area under control of the State Forest Departments. Nearly 600 million rural people depend on forest either for their sustenance or for livelihood. Almost 30% of India’s population still live below poverty line.

Hence, the rich land resource in the custody of the forest department is important to meet their basic needs of firewood, fodder and non-wood forest produces. As a result of uncontrolled forest utilization, however, forests are rapidly degraded and depleted.

India is predominantly an agrarian society with extended agricultural systems which border and merge with reserved forest areas. From Jammu-Kashmir (northernmost part of India) to Kanniyakumari (southernmost part of India), the villages are located on the fringes of forest. More than 70% population are dependent directly or indirectly on the forest. For example, cattle has free access to forest for grazing throughout the year. Fuel wood for cooking comprising of many species comes out from the reserved forest.

Fig. 1. In India nearly 600 million rural people depend on forest either for their sustenance or for livelihood. The vast majority of forest fires are caused by people, mostly as a consequence of utilization of wood and non-wood forest product utilization. Photo: J.G.Goldammer (GFMC).

In general the people living on the fringes of forests are unaware of the biodiversity concept. Their concept of forest is just confined to big animals such as elephants, tigers, panthers, etc., as well as big trees such as Teak, Sal, Deodar, Rose wood, and others, and they are totally unaware of the micro-flora and micro-fauna which are of least or no value to them. In the recent past even when the scorching sun has given a severe impact on the rain forest, one can imagine the fate of Indian Forest which are put on flames every year whether intentionally or unintentionally due to heavy pressure of the population all along the reserve forests boundaries. One or the other part of the forest area from northernmost to southernmost region is facing agony of the forest fire incidences in the hands of human beings at the peak period of summer (from December to May in Southern India and March to June in Northern India) in the process of which regeneration composition of the land is getting changed slowly and slowly and paving way to emergence of only fire hardy species.

In the process of civilization, modern humans have emerged out with developmental processes which causes so much agony to the ‘Nature God’, it is badly reflecting in the form of environmental degradation and causing global warming. The recent fires in Indonesia, Australia and South Mexico has drawn the attention of the environmentalists to the sufferings of human beings as well as wild animals. Most endangered species for example Orangutan have lost habitats in some parts of Indonesia and it was forced to rehabilitate in some other place. One can imagine the fate of unrecognised flora and fauna.

Implementation of Innovative Scheme

Considering the disastrous impact on the forest wealth an innovative scheme was launched to prevent forest fire by involving the local rural masses in creating environmental awareness. The Scheme was implemented in Coimbatore division of Tamil Nadu, India which is a part of Western Ghats and also one of the important biospheres of the world. The selected area used to get affected with fire by the graziers, illicit cutters, poachers, etc. Western Ghats constitutes prominent and fascinating features of peninsular India. It runs parallel to West coast ranging from Tapti valley in Gujarat to Kanniyakumari of Tamil Nadu covering a distance of 1600 km covering a total area of 51,185 km2 out of which Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu cover an area of 12,760 km2.

On account of its geographical position it intercepts South west monsoon winds which is the chief source of rain for the greater part of the country. Due to prevailing tropical climate the variability in the altitude and amount of rainfall the region enjoys the boundary of biological resources. Physical and environmental factors have unitedly evolved impact on resources pattern and many sub ecosystem. They have become highly complex and very fragile under the sub systems. This Western Ghats include one of the important biosphere of India viz, Nilgiri biosphere which is the unique and richest bio-geographical zone and fascinating feature in the Indian subcontinent holding multifarious endemic floristic and faunal wealth. The Western Ghats are occupied by more prominent species viz Tectona grandis, Dalbergia latifolia, Terminalia paniculata, Terminalia chebula, Terminalia bellarica, Terminalia arjuna, Pterocarpus marsupium, Adina cordifolia, Grewia tilifolia, Gmelina arborea, Santalum album, Syzygium cumini, Mangifera indica, Shola spp., etc. The Nilgiri biosphere reserve also forms part of important corridors for the movement of elephants with regional connectivity. It is having fragile ecosystem of Shola grasslands which face mounting problems due to overutilization. One of the most important causative factors of degradation is wildfire which has contributed to the alteration of these ecosystems.

The Coimbatore Division selected for this programme has a size of about 680 km2 with headquarters in Coimbatore City. Most of the forested region is located on the eastern slopes of the Nilgiri Hills with altitudes ranging from 245 m a.s.l. in the Bhavani valley up to 1450 m. Most of the Division, including the forested areas, lies in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats, with an annual rainfall of about 750 mm; the high elevations receive about 2000 mm precipitation mainly during the Northeast monsoon rains in October-November. Bhavani, Moyar, Noyilar and Walayar are the major rivers. The Division encloses six forest ranges (Coimbatore, Boluvampatti, Mettupalayam, Perianaickenpalayam, Karamadai and Sirumugai)

The Division is an important part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve with many areas, even though small in extent, forming important corridors ensuring regional connectivity for large mammal populations. Nearly 60% of the forests are dry deciduous and hence highly vulnerable to fire. Most of the remaining moist forests have open grasslands that are highly flammable in the dry months. The Division is rich in commercial timber species such as teak, rosewood and sandal wood and in non-timber forest produces such as tamarind (Tamarindus indica), Soapnut (Sapindus emarginatus), gallnut (Terminalia belirica), Nellikai (Phyllanthus emblica), seekai (Acacia sinuata), neem seeds (Azadirachta indica), avaram (Cassia auriculata), and bark of Cassia fistula.

Forest fires are a major recurrent management problem, even though the incidence and extent may vary from year to year depending primarily on rainfall during the dry fire season. Fire mostly affects the dry deciduous forests on the eastern slopes in January-March. It is believed that most of the fires are deliberately started by graziers (to get a fresh growth of grass), fuel wood and charcoal collectors, non-timber forest produce (NTFP) collectors, poachers, etc. Control of forest fires in this Division had followed traditional forestry practices of maintaining a network of firelines, and clearing them and conducting controlled burning before the fire season. Early detection of fire by a large number of seasonally appointed fire watchers, and once detected its containment with some level of local participation were standard and regular practice during the fire season. Even though relatively successful in the long past, for the last many years there has been a progressive failure in the prevention and control of forest fires. It has been felt that the incidence and intensity of fires have been on the increase, particularly considering the reduction in forest area that has taken place. This failure is attributed to several reasons: a progressive reduction in the allocation of resources for fire prevention and control (in terms of funds, personnel, equipment etc); there has been an increase in the interaction between people and forests (e.g. grazing, fuelwood collection) that leads to fire; there has been an alienation between people and forests in their neighbourhood due to various reasons so that the local people are no longer interested in cooperating in the control of forest fire.

In this background a project was launched in Coimbatore Forest Division, Western Ghats, to generate awareness among the rural masses and a greater success was achieved in the control of forest fire through the participation of local people. We did not however decide upon the form or extent of participation, leaving it to the course of events that would follow once we initiated an interaction with the local people.

We began in mid 1994 with a survey of human and cattle population inside and in the periphery of the reserved forests. We identified 49 human settlements inside the reserved forests with human population of about 10,000 people and a livestock population of about 5000 animals (goats, sheep, cows, buffaloes). We also identified 97 villages adjoining reserved forests, with a human population of about 240,000 people, and a livestock population of about 15,000 animals. A survey was made of the incidence and extent of forest fire from 1991 to 1995, based on records that are maintained by the forest department. These are records are likely to underestimate both incidence varied from 10 (in 1994 and 1995) to 55 in 1992. The area affected varied from about 20 ha in 1992 to about 40 ha in 1994. The percentage of area affected by fire varied from 0.06 to 0.30%. This is not a realistic figure since most of the forest fires are not reported by the lower staff due to various constraints. Some of the reserved forests were more affected than others and consistently so across the years. Villages inside and adjoining these reserve forests (23 in all) were selected for a campaign against forest fire.

The campaign to enlighten the villagers covered all media; by way of dum-dum in settlements deep inside the forest, pamphlets and posters, marches with loud speakers and placards, and local cable TV net work. Following this, public meetings were held in the centre of villages in which villagers were encouraged to speak extempore about forests and forest fire. From the forest department we explained the importance of forests at the local, national and global scale and the havoc that forest fire can play. The need to control forest fire, the necessity of local people’s participation in the fire control, and the background in which stiff penalties were imposed on people who deliberately started forest fires were explained. We found that villagers were keen to listen to their own people speaking rather than uniformed forest department staff. In most of the villages there was a good response during the meetings with many people coming forward to speak about their perception of forest fires and their impacts, and ways of controlling them. Many offered their full cooperation and some in return requested for specific services to be rendered by the forest department. Most of these requests related to long standing demands of the villagers that did not come within the jurisdiction of the forest department such as a tube well, periodic visits by a doctor etc. Meeting most of these demands required the role of forest department to coordinate with other government departments with no major financial commitments. Efforts were made by us to get these requests fulfilled, in many cases with success.

The initial meetings in the villages and attempts at fulfilling their genuine long standing demands often successfully, was followed by another round of meetings, one in each village. The major purpose of these meetings was to form a fire protection committee in each village. The major objective of forming such committees was for them to follow up on decisions on action needed to be taken at the local level in fire protection. No particular direction was given by us towards the composition of such committees, except that the local Range officer was the president. The number of members varied from 10 to 46, consisting of men and women from different walks of life. A register was opened which kept a record of the meetings and their outcome.

Massive campaigns was taken up by the forest department only during the fire season. Person to person canvassing is being done by the committee members, with support from the local forest department staff in the form of educational materials and training sessions conducted by the Range officers.

In 1994-95, the incidence of forest fire was minimal due to unseasonal rains.The campaign was also taken in the beginning stages. Other than an increase in the voluntary participation of local people in the fire control, it is difficult to evaluate the impact of the campaign at that juncture. In 1995-96, the incidence of forest fire was very low throughout the Western Ghats. Among the 23 committees that were formed in the villages, some were very active in campaigning against forest fire, and in participating in its control. In some villages the response was lukewarm and in the others none. A participation and its impact on the prevention and control of forest fire is yet to be made, partly because it is too early to make such an assessment.

Fig. 2. Posters and billboards are important carriers of fire prevention messages throughout India. Photo: J.G.Goldammer (GFMC).

Lessons

We have learnt three important lessons from the above small experiment in eliciting peoples’ participation in forest fire control. The first is about village committees. We found that committees are best formed after a period of interaction with people, and not as a first step. Committees formed without a period of interaction often contained many members whose initial enthusiasm withered away too soon. An initial period of interaction, on the other hand, often brought forward individuals who had a long term commitment to the cause.

The second lesson was that the forest department representative was a critical person whose presence in committee meetings was necessary to sustain the interest of committee in forest fire control. Without him the committees itself tended to underestimate its importance, and with his continued absence the committee tended to wither away.

A third lesson was regarding the sustainability of this initiative. It is only two years since this experiment began. In order to judge whether it is effective and worth emulating elsewhere, it is necessary to continue for a number of years. Whether this would happen or not depends to a large extent on the interest of forest department itself, especially the local and middle-level staff.

Conclusions

Forest fire and its management have long history in Indian Forestry. In 1954, the Chief Conservator of Forests of Madhya Pradesh, Mr. C.E.Hewetson, stated that the conception of forest fire protection was one of the most creative and far reaching in its effects. Not only it was essential to allow the drier forest to regenerate, but also it was and it is the most powerful single weapon in soil conservation. It was a tragedy that this idea of complete fire protection gradually eroded away by the urge for economy in expenditure. The most successful method of fire protection in the past used to be an elaborate network of fire lines, blocklines and guidelines, and their early clearing and burning. This system used to work very well and still does when population pressure on the forest is low. With increasing human population in and around forest areas, and their dependence for fodder, fuel wood and other non-timber forest produce, the traditional systems of fire control no longer works effectively. The human resources available with the forest department have not increased with increasing human pressure on the forest. On an average in India, nearly 500 ha of forest is patrolled by one guard and one watcher. It is practically impractical to monitor and control the forest fire in such a large area which is having free access by the intruders from all sides. Unnatural forest fire causes imbalance to the nature which reflects very badly on the biodiversity and reduces floral and faunal wealth. Forests in developing countries which are adjoining the habitat of rural settlements where the people are not aware of the importance of the forests. The whole stretch of the forest area is not fenced and it is having a free access from all sides by the intruders causing tremendous pressure on these forests. Unless man himself realises the importance of forests it is not going to work effectively for the conservation of natural forests. At this juncture awareness campaign will go a long way to bring down the forest fire incidences through the pioneer leaders who comes forward for the cause of conservation of natural resources.

Reference

Sangal, P.M. 1989. A suggested classification of forest fires in India by types and causes. Paper presented at the National Seminar on Forest Fire Fighting, Kulamaru (Kerala), 2-3 November 1989.

Rajiv K. Srivastava, I.F.S.
Deputy Conservator of Forests Bharathi Park Road
Coimbatore – 641 043
Tamil Nadu
INDIA

See also: Fire Photo Archive of India

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IFFN No. 20
Country Notes
Specials

24. November 2017/by GFMCadmin

India: Forest Fire and its Prevention by Generating Environmental Awareness in the Rural Masses (IFFN No. 21 – October 1999)

Forest Fire and its Prevention
by Generating Environmental Awareness in the Rural Masses

(IFFN No. 21 – October 1999,p. 36-47)

Introduction

Forest fires that are natural or man made play a significant role in ecosystem dynamics. Recurrent fire decreases the green cover through prevention of regeneration and leads to the slow death of the forest. It also increases erosion and alters the physical and chemical properties of the soil, converting organic ground cover to soluble ash and modifying the microclimate through the removal of overhead foliage. The soluble ash is washed away in the next rain. Fires can also make trees more susceptible to insect attack.

Fire is one of the early tools man used in his struggle to master Nature. But when a blaze is out of control it is dangerous. Forest fires cause a lot of damage to the ecosystem. Soil composition is affected, the quality of forest produce declines and wildlife is destroyed. “The incidence of forest fires in the country is high. Trees and fodder are destroyed on a large scale and natural regeneration is annihilated by such fires. Special precautions should be taken during the fire season. Improved and modern management practices should be adopted to deal with forest fires” says the National Forest Policy, 1988 in a special mention about forest fires. These fires cause irreparable loss to both tangible and intangible benefits from forests. Fire reduces the quality of forest produce, renders forests prone to diseases, degrades soil composition, decimates soil microbes, smothers regeneration and destroys wildlife.

A fire causing incalculable damage to the ecosystem as a whole can be termed as a forest fire. Such a fire is common in almost all types of our forests barring some wet evergreen patches. The fire season usually coincides with the hot summer which extends from January to April. The damage depends upon the frequency and intensity and the type of the forest, availability of fuel and the local climatic factors.

Forest fire and its management have long history in Indian Forestry. In 1954, the Chief Conservator of Forests of Madhya Pradesh Mr.C.E.Hewetson stated “the conception of forest fire protection was one of the most creative and far reaching in its effects. Not only was it essential to allow the drier forest to regenerate, but it was and it is the most powerful single weapon in soil conservation. It was a tragedy that this idea of complete fire protection was gradually eroded away by the urge for economy in expenditure.” The most successful method of fires protection in the past used to be an elaborate network of fire lines, block-lines and guidelines, and their early clearing and burning. This system used to work very well and still does when population pressure on the forest is low. With increasing human population in and around forest areas, and their dependence for fodder, fuel wood and other non-timber forest produce, the traditional systems of fire control no longer works effectively. The human resources available with the forest department have not increased with increasing human pressure on the forest. On an average in India, nearly 500 ha of forest have to be patrolled by one guard and one watcher!

Background

Western Ghats in Southern part of India gives a salient fascinating features of the rich biological diversity of the Indian sub-continent. The forests of Western Ghats increasingly well documented and a place of attraction for biologists, tourists, environmentalist, painters for its exceptionally high level of biodiversity, endemic flora and fauna with beautiful landscape. Apart from biological values, the mountains are essential water catchments for large part of Tamil Nadu state for its agriculture, hydro-power and industrial needs.

Since Independence in 1947, India has suffered a rapid depletion of forest resources. Some 75 million ha are officially classified as forest land, but according to the 1987 Forest Survey of India (Ministry of Environment and Forests, 1987), the actual forest cover is 64.2 million ha. This is equivalent to only 19.5% of the total land area, whereas the National Forest Policy (MOEF, 1988) set a goal of at least one-third (approximately 110 million ha) of total land area under forest cover for ecological stability. Moreover the existing resources are subjected to severe biotic pressure, owing to the fact that less than 2 per cent of the forest area in the world, the country supports over 15 per cent of the world’s population and nearly 14 per cent of the cattle (Saigal, 1989)

In India, forest fires are the significant and increasing contributory factor in the degradation process, although the extent of total damage is widely disputed. According to a study made during 1989, during the sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85) 17,852 fires were reported affecting an area of 5.7 million ha or an annual average of some 1.14 million ha (Saigal, 1989). Even this range may be regarded as conservative. Data collected by the Forest Survey of India indicate that the forest area that is affected by annual fires may be as high as 37 million ha (Ministry of Environment & Forests, 1987).

Local people have observed how the tropical forests have been destroyed from their area day by day. Pappammal, a 65 years _ old lady from Thekkampatty village who got the National award for growing trees in her land said fire is the only major factor for destruction of their forests. She said that local cattle graziers often set ablaze grazing areas in the hope of getting new shoots. The head load carriers destroyed vegetation to create pathways through the forests. Encroachers often set fire to forests in order to clear the land and for NTFP collection by the tribals and the villagers. The careless tourists could set off forest fires throwing away lighted matches or cigarette butts. It damages not only the trees and tiny herbs but also wild animals. Venkateswaran (57 years) an old man from the village Mangalapalayam expressed his experience: “If the tree is cut, it can regenerate by means of coppice, if it is fired, it is dead – never grows…It was the terrible day of April 1992, when I was at Kodaikanal, throughout the night I observed the leaping flames of fire. My excellent 5 years old plantations within the forest was entirely ruined. I was helpless, just I could not stop the fire despite of the best effort with our staff“.

Rainfall has direct relation with occurrence of forest fire in the area. Every year we frequently come across fire in our forest during the months of February to May. Two years back in 1994, there was good rainfall. But this year as the rainfall was not enough, chance of getting fire in the forest was too high. But due to our community initiatives till now no fire incidence has been recorded from our forest” said the president of Thekkampatti Fire Protection Committee.

With the collaboration and joint initiative by the villagers and Forest department staff, an innovative forest fire protection movement was started in Coimbatore Forest Division (Fig.1) in 1995. There are 23 such committees protecting 69,347 ha of tropical forests. In the Government record from last 1991 to 1995 there were 119 fire incidences and 486.65 ha of forest area had been destroyed which was about 0.64 per cent of the total area.

Fig.1. Map of Forest Fire Protection Committees (FFPC),
Coimbatore Forest Division.

The essence of fire prevention is nothing but breaking the fire triangle which is composed of fuel, air (and other climatic factors) and ignition source. A socio-cultural and psychological reorientation is necessary. The actual implementation of fire prevention measures, motives of the local people has to be understood deeply and to appreciate their problems. For this, apart from the knowledge in technical forestry, a sound understanding of the social system is important.

The present case study on participatory fire control strategies attempts to document the local initiatives in collaboration with the Forest department in prevention and management of forest fire which has been an important factor in the forest ecology.

The Site

Land and People

The Irular, a tribal community, settled in the different pockets of forest areas of this region is entirely dependent on the forest and its products for their livelihood.

Ramaswamy, Headmaster of Sirumugai village and the president of Lingapuram forest fire protection committee, recalls how life, in this once-remote area has changed during the past two decades. Sandal trafficking, commercial logging,in-migration and the population pressure have influenced the area and resulted in deforestation, severe soil erosion, poverty among the villagers and fires which have rapidly destroyed the environmental stability and productivity of western Ghats. Many of the villagers still remember the year 1984 when bus service started in the area, they could get the first opportunity to visit district town. That was the beginning of their outside contact and modernization which they are not sure weather has done good or bad to the community, perhaps it has done both.

The area has never got high rainfall. The average rainfall is 750 mm along the plateau and at the foothills. The plains of Nilgiri hills are subjected to very hot and dry climate. In the villages the population has increased ten times over the past fifty years. Though the rainfall is scanty, significant improvement has taken place in agricultural productivity due to the Lower Bhavani river project. Though the rainfall has decreased as compared to early days, the changed land use pattern and the irrigation projects have resulted in better farm productivity.

Forests

Historically the area is famous for its growth of teak, rosewood, Vengai, sandalwood and tamarind which were continued for a number of years as a main source for timber and other products, even after the British acquired possession of the forests. During early 19th century at the time of the construction of South Indian Railway, large number of timber trees were extracted for sleepers. In 1960, large scale coup felling was done in this area.

Local villagers were used to collect the entire range of non-wood forest products (NWFP) from this tropical forests. Tamarind used to be the most important forest produce.It accounts for nearly 25 per cent of total revenue from all NWFP’s put together. The barks of Langal (Cinnamomum zetlanicum), Kolamavu (Machilus macrantha), Nellikai (Emblica officinalis), Mohwa (Madhuca latifolia) wild jacks, wild mangoes and a range of medicinal plants was the asset of the forest.

The forests of the area comprises of mixed deciduous species of small girth and medium height growth, which falls under:

The southern thorn forest – 6A/C1

The southern dry mixed deciduous forests – 5A/C3

The phoenix Savannah

The west coast semi evergreen forest – 2A/C2

The west coast tropical evergreen forests – 1A/C4

(Champion and Seth, 1964)

The tree species like Aya (Holoptelea integrifolia), Porusu (Chloroxylon swietenia), Pachala (Dalbergia paniculata), Thani (Terminalia bellerica), Lallangai (Anogeissus latifolia), Palai (Wrightia tinctoria), Vagai (Albizia procera), Rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia), Sandal (Santalum album), Konnai (Cassia fistula), Acha (Hardwickia binata), Poochakottai (Sapindus emarginatus), Tamarind (Tamarindus indica), Nellikai(Emblica officinalis) are dominated in the canopy of these forests. There are evidences of excellent teak (Tectona grandis) plantation in few areas.

Natural regeneration is insufficient. Local forest department is giving importance in the plantation of teak, sandal, tamarind and bamboo. Sandal a valuable timber tree of the area is being destroyed by the illicit wood cutters. In the last 30 years there is a significant reduction in the number of sandal trees. Large scale gang smuggling often reported. Human interference consists of felling, lopping, hacking, setting fire and grazing caused havoc. The damage caused by browsing, trampling down seedling and hardening of soil surface by repeated treading is common. Recently the population of wild elephant has increased in this forest and in small/big herds, they often raid the adjoining field crops.

Fire – Ecological Perspectives

Fires in the forests are regular annual feature in the area which occurs usually in the month of February to May. About one per cent area of forest is disturbed by forest fire every year. It causes extensive damage to sandal, bamboo, timber and non-wood forest produce yielding trees.

There are reports of conversion of tropical mixed deciduous dry forests in the slopes to Savannah type with more and more coarse grass by repeated fires. Fire has a tremendous negative impact in growth of trees. The regeneration of tree species is halted in occurrence of fire. There is a quantum loss in the bio-diversity. No study has been done how much loss is occurring in the micro-organism but this is apparent that the microbial ecology is disturbed that is again related with the decomposition of litters and regeneration from seeds. In the process of succession the burnt forest area may take many years to function normally.

Many times fire give a positive results in the production and regeneration of grasses. Probably the influx of nutrient helps villagers to have more fodder in the rainy season. Uncontrolled fires affect forest resources in a variety of ways. Regeneration is killed or dies back thereby delaying the establishment of a new crop and extending the rotation. When newly planted teak plantations are burnt, it is standard practice to cut the young trees down to ground level: this stimulates new vigorous shoot from the base, but at least one year’s growth is lost. Young eucalyptus plantations frequently require replanting and coppice regeneration dies back for (or must be cut back) after fire. Studies indicate that the volume increment of various species of Eucalyptus is reduced after fires and that the effect persists for several years. The cumulative loss of annual increment depends on the severity of the fire, but generally lies in the range of one to three years growth.

No research appears to have been done so far on the potentially far giver intangible effects of forest fires in India. Not only do uncontrolled fires burn down the vegetation, but also the organic matter is adversely lowered, increasing the frequency of flooding and causing soil erosion. In addition, wildlife patterns and habitat may be disrupted. The situation is exacerbated by a lack of fire protection planning knowledge and incentives.

In addition to the weather(temperature relative humidity, rainfall, wind velocity, etc.) the topography, build up of litter on ground, duff/fuel moisture percentage etc also strongly influence the possibilities of forest fires. Besides the short term improvement of forest land for improvement of grazing value through forest fire local people often use fire to facilitate hunting, honey collection travel and shifting cultivation.

Many time people put fire due to non-timber forest product collection like for clearing of the forest floor prior to the collection of flowers, fruits, seeds and in stimulating flush of leaf crop such as tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon), for flowers of Mahua (Maduca indica) in March and April and sal (Shorea robusta) in May for sal seeds.

Rodgers (1986) suggested that the non-burning of sal forest in Dudhwa U.P. since national park status in 1974 has allowed a dense undergrowth of unpalatable shrubs to develop. This prevents swamp deer making movements to drier grasslands in the monsoon, reduces chital forage availability and has prevented much sal seedling regeneration. A programme of occasional controlled burning in the sal was suggested on an experimental basis. Conserving marshes, swampy area and water catchments are essential for forest fire prevention. Forest fire reduces the wild food for the animals as well as for the forest dwelling people. Through their immediate effects on vegetation, fires have a further effect on animals-change in cover and food, on soils loss of litter, deposition of ash hardening of surfaces; and on water-changed permeability, increased surface flow. Many effects are related and interacting, fire ecology is thus both complex to understand and difficult to evaluate.

Emergence and Functioning of Forest Fire Protection Committees (FFPC)

“The forests belonging to us”, this was the answer given by Shri Velliangiri (54) of Narasapuram village when he asked the question “Whose forest is this?“. Now no one seeds the forests as exclusive property of the government or forest department. When Shri Subbiah (65) of Thekkampatti village encountered the questions: “How much do you directly depend on forests for your livelihood ?”, his answer was “less now a days because of diversification of income sources“. The next question asked was “then why do you want to protect forest?“. He readily replied that the forests are absolutely necessary to maintain the ecological balance which is basic for sustaining the life support systems on earth”. The same man said that his perception about forests has changed after he became the member of the local forest fire protection committee. Many localities have shared the view of Shri Subbiah.

Smt.Rangammal (70) of the same village remarked “when we have started growing trees in our farmlands (agro-forestry), how can we allow the trees to be cut in the natural forests?” She firmly opined that fire was the single most important cause for destruction of forests in that region. Many endorsed her view in not only Thekkampatti village, but also other villages where forest fire protection committees were formed. This strong perception was the reason why people have readily cooperated to join hands with the forest department to check the wild fire by forming protection committees.

The President of the FFPC of the village Mangalapalayam recalled their last battle against a major fire in their neighbouring forest four years back. “…it was a big fire. We spotted it in the morning and informed the forest guard. As he was alone, we about 10-12 people went along with him to put off the fire. Only when we approached the spot we could realize how big the fire was. Flame was leaping 50-100m high. We could not go closer than 500 ft. from the fire. We struggled unsuccessfully from 11 a.m. to 4 p.m. with our limited means to put off the fire. We could only succeed to draw a fire line to prevent further spread of fire. It was burning throughout the night and naturally put off in the early morning. It was the horrible site to see the spot after the fire. It was just like a battle field after the war. At that I was wondering why the nature was curse to itself. How many decades it would have taken for nature to grow a tree and why does it destroy itself in few hours by fire. Later on when I joined in the forest fire protection committee only realized that natural occurrence of forests fire are rare and most of the fire are human made. I had owed to prevent its occurrence. We are planning to build up a task force to check to prevent forest fire through our village committee”. Within a year of their formation, the committees have considerably succeeded in their missions. “Fire in the forests were regular occurrences and frequent in every summer. But in the summer season just after the formation of the committee. There were few or no incidence of forest fires”. This was the observation of the people in almost all the villages.

Every one recalled the mass meetings held by the forest department in the year 1995 at Alanthurai, Thadagam and Lingapuram village functions to create awareness about the destructions caused by the forest fire, around 6000 people attended the meeting. The indirect but the heavy damage caused to their crop fields was highlighted in these meetings. Demonstrations and videos shows on how to control forest fire were also conducted after the meetings. These meetings in fact created a lasting impression on the minds of local people. Particularly the strange fact that forest department has conducted the public meeting (never in their memory such thing happened in the past) itself had attracted their attention. They cannot just resist the invitation to participate in forest protection by the forest department which has so far functioned in isolation, away from the people. In many images people have controlled themselves as the members of the protection committee just after the meeting.

Best thing to happen was the immediate follow-up by both the forest department and the villagers (“opinion leaders”) after the meeting. Frequent group meetings were held in the villages to motivate and enrol other villagers in the forest protection committees. These meetings served as crucial look between the opinion leaders and other villagers and in turn the opinion leaders acted as the link between the forest department and the local people. The role of opinion leaders was to convince the other villagers and enrol as many members as possible. Definitely initial impetus was given by the forest department, but credit goes to these local leaders who had taken initiatives to diffuse the message deep into the community and expand the membership of the FFPC.

Though the villagers were not directly involved in protection or management of forests in the past, there has been an inherent concern among the community about the decline in forest cover. As the Range officer, Boluvampatti has rightly pointed out their concern about forests has been well reflected by the enthusiasm shown by the villagers of Narasapuram and Mangalapalayam during the initial meeting. “All we have done is to appeal to this concern and evoke their favourable response. The support we have been receiving from the community is something beyond our exception”, he said. He further remarked “…now realize that so far by keeping the local people away from forest protection and management. We (forest department) have lost more than we gained. We have failed to utilize the potentials of local people. They would in fact multiply and expand our conservation efforts very effectively with almost no cost”.

In all the villages, wherever we spoke to the villagers they expressed their tremendous concern over the fast declining of forest cover. Particularly elders, over the age of 65 years, could recall the existence of dense, impenetrable forests with lot of wild life movements before 50 years in their neighborhood. Now, they say that they can easily walk deep in the so called without any difficulty as they do in village paths hardly encountering any remarkable wild life activity. Almost all the village elders were unanimous in their opinion that the degradation forests was accelerated in mid 70s when commercial felling through contract system was allowed by the forest department. When commercial felling was stopped, the degradation has also slowed down and now it has stabilized. The general opinion of all generations in the villages is that from the mid 1980s, due to massive social and farm forestry programmes, there is a perceptible increase in forest cover which has to be sustained. This is the precise reason they want to take voluntary measures to protect forests.

Everyone – all sections – are in agreement that forest fire is the single most important destructive factor in forests of this region. Forest fires are regular features in summer. Then why did they not take any measure prevent forest fire so far ? and why there is a sudden resurgence to protect forests from fire?. This question was asked in all villages. This response was common in all the villages. Though there were frequent incidence of forest fires in the past, they were all thought to be natural occurrences and nothing could be sure about it. Of course they were also aware of the deliberate attempt to put fire in forests. But they were perceived to be far less frequent. Moreover, they were not organised earlier. Lonely fights against the grand forest fires were impossible. They helplessly watched the fire destroying the forests. It was thought that it was the responsibility of the forest department to put off the fire. Community action to protect the forests was never in the mind of the people. Earlier the department was also functioning in isolation, distancing itself from the people. It was the unique appeal from the forest department calling for community action, community organization to protect the forests, particularly check forest fires. It was basically appeal to their inherent desire to protect forest which has now been channelised though community forests fire protection committees. Now all the members of the committee,after proper appraisal by the forest department realise that all the forest fire with rare exceptions occur due to human interventions, either intentionally and unintentionally and they are preventable.

They have also realised that through organised efforts, forest fires can be not only prevented, but also checked or put off if detected. They all have been adequately briefed, demonstrated and to some extent trained to check/put off forest fire by the department staff. Most importantly, they have understood that apart form “physical efforts” to prevent/check forest fire there are other effective “social Measures” like community education, social auditing, social and economical sanctions/fines, rewards/incentives etc. which can be adopted by them successfully. All the village committees adopt such measures in varying degrees and forms depending upon local conditions. The result is that there is almost no fire incidence in the summer season preceded by the formation of the sometimes which shows the year wise incidence of fires and extent of damage.

There are six forest ranges covering an area of 64,347 ha in Coimbatore district. As indicated in the map, this area is classified based on the fire occurrence into three categories viz., most vulnerable, medium vulnerable and low vulnerable. So far 23 village fire protection committees have been formed in all these three classified areas. This classification in any way does not undermine the importance of the fire protection committees formed in the low vulnerable areas. In fact though the fire occurrences are comparatively lesser in these areas, it is likely to become medium or highly vulnerable if adequate preventive measures are taken. In that sense, the protection committees in these areas also have equally important role to play.

The table indicates name of all the 23 fire protection committees and corresponding number of members in each committee, from this data, it can be inferred that the average membership of each committee is 14 and implies that only a fraction of village population are the members of the committee. However, the interaction with the villagers revealed that most of them were aware of the activities of the committee. This means that diffusion of information, which is the primary responsibility of the committee, properly takes place within the village social system. At present, the membership of the committee is by and large confined to the well informed few in the village. It is growing as the others in village also take active interest in the activities of the committee.The members of the committee function as opinion leaders to the rest of the community. They in fact multiply the effort of forest department by disseminating information and motivating the other people – young and old – to actively participate in forest fire protection activities.

The primary responsibility of the fire protection committee is to identify and check factors responsible for forest fire. As they now are able to precisely locate the human activities that cause fire in the forests, the committees could work out the strategies also to check such activities along with the forest department. As the first step, they have jointly organised educational campaigns targeting the groups which are likely to cause fire – the graziers, fire wood cutters, NTFP collectors, contract labourers, tribals, casual visitors to the forests etc. Frequent campaigns and meetings are being conducted to make these groups aware of the devastating effects the fire has on forests. The forest department has been supporting such efforts by supplying educational materials like leaflets, posters, video films and sometimes conduct demonstrations. The staff – Range officers and others participate in all the meetings/discussion and offer expert advice. However, the effective method to persuade the offenders seems to be the personal influence by the members. Each member of the protection committee has taken responsibility to personally influence the likely forest fire setters and in few committees even targets have been fixed to each member for this task.

So far, the committee’s educational efforts have been successful among the unintentional fire setters to leave their potentially dangerous habits like smoking inside the forests. They are yet mark their success among the intentional fire setters. Systematic efforts are necessary in this direction. The committees are regularly meeting to frame their strategies, proceedings of every meeting are recorded. The secretary of the committee takes the responsibility to conduct the meeting and record its proceedings. The committee is headed by the president. In many committees the office bearers of protection committee and the village panchayat are common and hence relationship between the tow bodies is almost cordial.Though so far no formal election of office bearers of the committee is held, their functioning is regulated through democratic procedures. Decisions are made in a democratic way in consultation with the forest department. In some committees, the Range officer is also a ex-officio convener. Otherwise, he is invited to the meetings as the special invitee.

At present, the committee just informs the forest department staff immediately if the fire is detected in the forest. Though the members are shown demonstrations by the department how to check and put off the fire, they are not well trained. They, of course accompany the staff to fight against the fire. Now, many committees are planning to build up a well trained special fire fighting squad comprising of village youth. The committees are also in the process of evolving more stringent punishment system comprising monetary fines, social sanctioning, shramdhan (hard physical labour), social boycott etc to enforce on the offenders. Many members opined that the present system of just catching the offenders and handling over them to the forest department is not very effective. Though they appreciate the punishment provisions of the department, say that the legal and administrative systems takes long time to settle the cases and creates less impact on the offenders. Foresters also agree to this point and say that locally evolved legal provisions would effectively supplement their efforts if properly coordinated.

When the point of women involvement was debated with the members, it was pointed out that since the committees were first started as the fire protection committees, and Women were perceived to have no role in fighting against fire their inclusion was not considered so important. Incidentally women also ask “What role do we play in controlling fire? It is men’s job. This kind of misconception also seems to exist among the staff of the forest department. Range officer of the Bolampatti forest range agrees ” Yes we, do miss women in the committee and I realise the lacuna. In fact they are crucial link to reach the whole community. We should take effort to involve them in committee’s activities”. He is true, especially when the committee’s are enlarging their activities from just preventing forest fire to protection and conservation the whole forest resources under the fold of Joint Forest Management. If a community of other group is strongly against setting forest fire, the individuals in the group or community are effectively restrained from such action than by any law.

Role of Forest Department in Implementing the Programme

The institutionalization of the conceptual shift in Forest management from purely state sponsored to Joint Management with people’s involvement has been gradual among the various levels in the Forest department. This has brought a change in their role from mere conservation to development i.e development through participation. Efforts are going on at the national level to reorient the foresters at all levels to the new task. Forest department is no more alienated from the people. They are increasingly accepted by the people as agents of change and are being offered assistance and co-operation in their efforts. It is glaringly evident in this case of Forest fire protection with community involvement.

It is due to the efforts of foresters – right form forest guard to the Divisional Forest Officer – now people have clearly understood the urgent need for forest protection which could be achieved only through their involvement. Forest fire which has been responsible for extensive damage to the forests of this area has came in handy to the forest department to convincingly demonstrative the effects of the of forest destruction to the people. How much people have realized the magnitude of the problem is quite evident from the remark of the elderly person, Mr.Venkatesan of Nathagodenpudur “if a tree is cut, there is a chance for its regeneration. But if it is burnt, it is dead, no question of its regeneration. This statement does not imply that he is for cutting the tree, but it clearly shows that the strategy of forest department by taking up the forest fire – visual evidence of vast destruction of forests – as the major issue and first step in forest protection has succeeded in lagging the community efforts with their own mission.

Reorientation at the grassroots level of the department- shedding the fallacy about their uniform – has helped them to build good rapport with the local people. Though the forest guards and range officers still wear uniform, because of their attitudinal and behaviourial change they are now largely approachable by the people. We observed that in all villages, the people right from school children to old people including women – converge to approach the officers whenever the forest department vehicle enters into the village rather than disperse away as a mark of fear and distaste. This perceptional change on both sides has triggered the mutual dynamism to work together for the common cause of forest protection.

The fringe area of Western ghats coming under Coimbatore territorial forest division is highly prone to fire, especially in summer seasons. Since the whole coimbatore district falls under rain shadow area, its forests are all the more vulnerable to fire. Compared to Irular tribal community, the other neighbourhood rural communities are less dependent on forest. Their main occupation is agriculture and due to industrialization, their focus of dependency for income has gradually shifted from forest to urban centres. In many of the villages it has been observed that number of dwellings have decreased due to out migration. In addition, the diversification in occupation, for example towards brick line (particularly in Thadagam area) also reduces the people’s dependency on forests. Though the brick cline, by and large have a destructive influence over the ecology of this area, one beneficial effect observed is that it has been successful in reducing the biotic pressure on neighbouring forests. The local people now earn many more times than what they used to earn through forest based products earlier. Moreover their working schedule is also highly regulated. Yet another impact of these bricks cline is to be seen in agriculture and its allied activities. Agriculture has adversely affected as many farmers (the farmers of this area were supposed to be highly progressive and agricultural productivity of this region was very high.) have leased out their productive land for brick cline which are more remunerative. Most of the brick cline are managed and owned by outsiders who have only business interest and least bothered about ecological sustainability of the area. They indiscrimately exploit the productive topsoil and have made the large stretch of the area unsuitable for agriculture. Days are not far away when the local people would be forced to pay heavy price for this kind of exploitation of nature.

The reduction in the agricultural activities has resulted in the decline of animal power. The cattle population sent for grazing into the forest has also reduced. Farmers in these villages mostly maintain only productive cattle. Thanks to cattle improvement programme of the Animal Husbandry department, most of the productive cattle are the improved breeds and require stall feeding. Usually the unproductive cattle are sold to the traders who in turn sell them in neighbouring Kerala for slaughter. The elders of the villages recount the drastic reduction (almost 10 -15 times) in the cattle population over the period of 40 years. As the result the grazing pressure on the neighbouring forest has also considerably reduced. Few unproductive cattle of these villages and the cattle belonging to the Irular tribal community go to the forest for grazing.

According to the villagers the requirement of fuel wood collected from the forests also has in these days reduced as they have got access to diversified sources of fuel including the bio-gas and methane gas. Since the cattle are stall fed, the cow dung collected has become the major source of fuel. Under the present circumstances, the major cause for the degradation is the forest fire as perceived by the foresters and villagers. The appreciable aspect of the whole campaign is the systematic approach adopted by the forest department. Before launching the campaign, the department thoroughly studied the area and identified that the forest fire is single most important cause for the destruction of forest in this region.They had also come to the definite conclusion that except rare cases, almost all the fire incidence in this region are caused by human interventions. Though the location is highly vulnerable to catch fire, the factors promoting natural fire are seldom present here.

Through its initial survey, the department has also found out the types of human activities that causes forest fire.

The grazier and the wood collectors who regularly go to the forest, While smoking, unintentionally throw the burning buds inside the forests. When they fall on the dried leaves and the twigs, especially in summer seasons easily catch fire. This is found to be the one of the common causes. Such a casual practice but the destructive one also exist among the labourers who are engaged in large numbers by the contractors for the collection of NTFP’s during the seasons – the summer months starting from the January to April, potentially dangerous in the forest fire point of view.

There are certain locally famous temples and tourist spots inside the forests. Many tourists/local people visit the spots/temples on holidays and festivals. Many of them smoke and casually throw the burning buds inside the forest causing fire during the festivals, many of the neighbourhood communities/tribal communities visit the forest-temples to offer prayers. One of the common rituals is to cook rice with milk (locally known as Pongal) and offer it to God. Many times they do not properly put off the fire after cooking which spread fire in the forests when the wind blows. Such kinds of fire are very difficult to check.

The graziers are also reported to deliberately put fire in the forests in order to get good growth of grass in next seasons. The fire wood collectors do burn the trees to get charcoal. However these incidences are gradually reducing as the dependency of the neighbouring village communities on these products are becoming less. (The villagers almost deny the existence of such practices.)

The tribal Irular are found to deliberately put fire inside the forest to collect grass, dried fire wood, charcoal etc. on which their daily life depends. (This was also verified while talking to the Irular at Sadivayal near Siruvani foot hills. They completely depend on the forest for grazing their cattle and fire wood.They do not practice stall feeding and usually require 8-10 kg of fire wood per day per family for their own consumption. In addition they sell grass and fire wood outside.)

The tribals in this region are the major collectors of NTFP’s. They collect NTFPs for their own consumption and for sale. (They sell the NTFPs either directly in the open market or through the co-operative societies set up by the government depending upon the prevailing price.) They constitute the major junk of the labour force engaged by the private contractors (yearly leasing out by the Government thorough the auction) for the collection of NTFPs. The common complain is that these tribals put fire in order to clear off the forest floors so as to collect the NTFPs easily. (This was denied by the tribals while talking to them at their settlements.)

The entire Coimbatore forest division is infested by wild elephants. The villages bordering the reserve forests are the most affected. Crop damages by these wild elephants is very common, almost a daily affair. Local people adopt many methods to drive away the elephants including crackers and fire. Possibility of forest catching fire during this cooperation is not ruled out. (Now the use of crackers to drive the elephants away is prohibited in the villages adjoining the Range forests falling in Sirumugai and Mettupalayam ranges as it creates confusion the local police task force between the crackers and the gun fire of the Veerappan gang, the notorious poacher group.)

The illegal wood cutters and the poachers (the most notorious of the Veerappan gang) also to a large extent responsible for the forest fires.

Every one in the forest department, right from the guard to the Divisional Forest Officer and even above – has realised that these identified cause of fires can be checked only with the involvement of the local people. However, they did not directly approach the offenders as it was not feasible option. Past attempts to directly deal with these people have not been successful because these people could not identify themselves with the forest department.It is the traditional fear of uniform which has kept them away from the forest department. The change in the approach of the forest department has not yet been properly perceived by them. The best way to approach them is through the opinion leaders of the same village who have been regarded by these people. This is the well proven method of extension , and precisely adopted by the forest department. (Opinion leaders are undoubtedly proved to be more effective in communicating with local communities than the external extension/change agents due to their hemophillous character. The forest department, though not scientifically [socio-metric method], but almost accurately has identified the opinion makers in the villages and utilised their services through fire protection committees to educate the other local community including the offenders.)

Apart from this personal contact, this forest division under the guidance of the District Forest officer (Rajiv.K.Srivastava), has been trying various innovative campaign methods to motivate/inform people about forest fires. Their target group has included all the sections of the community right from school children. The good example is the Government Elementary school in Sirumugai.The head master of this school, also a member of the Lingapuram village FFPC, is impressed by the efforts of the forest department, and has taken extra interest to integrate the school activities of that forest department. The school with the walls bearing full of teachings on environment and forest resource conservation has created lasting impact on the minds of the young children and stands an ideal community education centre. On recommendation of the DFO, the head master Shri Ramaswamy got the state award for the best teacher in 1995.

Not only in Sirumugai, but in all villages, school children have shown significant awareness about the forest conservation efforts by the community and the forest department. This is due to the competitions held by the forest department among the school children and rewarding them in public meetings, involving children in social forestry and afforestation programmes, distribution of uniforms to the children and even conducting regular meetings of the FFCPS in the school premises also create awareness among the children.

The demonstrations conducted by the department staff to show to counteract the forest forests have became very popular as they were most effective means to learn the skill. (Demonstrations have been proved to be one of the most effective extension teaching method over the years among different kinds of population as it engages more number of senses simultaneously while learning taking place). Usually the demonstration are being conducted after the mass/group meetings in the villages. Many times villagers are also taken to the actual forest area prone to fire and demonstrations are shown, particularly how to create fire line and control the fires. such exercise have given them the idea how the human interventions cause major forest fires and dispelled their misconception that the forest fires were natural occurrences and cannot be prevented. Now the villagers even prepared to form a special task force to prevent and control forest fires comprising of village youths.

In addition to the mass meeting and demonstrations, the campaigns of the forest department include many innovative popularization methods like distribution of uniform with a message to prevent forest fire to school children, community feast oath taking to prevent forest fire at the village temple. Since it was realised that the villages in which protection committees were formed alone cannot prevent forest fires in isolation of neighbouring villages who also have equal access to the forests, it was felt necessary to spread the message to them also. The committees themselves had come up with innovative ideas like padayatras (long march) and human chain. Even in some villages like Lingapuram in Sirumugai range, the committee members were suggesting to take up a awareness campaign by autorikshaws when we had interaction with them.

The department, apart from personal and group contact methods, has also used mass media like radio and newspapers effectively for its campaign. These media are being used not only spread the messages on forest fire prevention but also to give wide publicity to the constructive/appreciable works carried out by the village forest fire protection committees. Such kind of publicity gives the committees immense pride and sense of achievement and thus acts as a motivating force for further action. It is also seen to be inducing a competitive spirit among the committees. The media message are being well supplemented by poster and leaflets/pamphlets. They serve to create further interest among the villagers who became aware about the forest fire prevention through the mass meeting and media. Sustained campaign actually creates immense desire among the community to participate in the task and ultimately leads them to conviction and action.

While promoting community action to prevent forest fires the forest departments strict action against the offenders is also being appreciated by the villagers. This is great attitudinal change among the villagers who are ready to support any legal actions such as fines and imprisonment of offenders, even if they are locals. In fact the huge fines inflicted upon the offender in Thadagam village of Periyanakampalayam range and Mangalapalayam of Boluvampatti range had created wide spread awareness among the villagers in those ranges. What could be learnt from this experience is that had the forest department taken only legal action against the offenders, as done during the past, it would have only recovered the hostile reaction from the local communities. But the educational campaign immediately following the imposition of fines, had in fact earned public support.

The forest department has come closer to the local community by taking up non-conventional but needful services such as conduction rural/tribal health camps, non-formal education providing facilities to local schools, prevention of school dropouts, organizing community sports and recreation activities, providing alternative energy/income generation activities and championing the community causes with other development departments/agencies. The forest guard no more just guards the forests but guards the whole community interests. He has become the real extension agent – friend, philosopher and guide to the local people.

Summary

Unnatural forest fire causes imbalance to the nature which reflects very badly on the bio-diversity and reduces floral and faunal wealth. Old traditional methods of preventing fire is not playing much role in front of the will to put fire. Forests in developing countries which are adjoining the habitat of rural masses the people are not aware of the importance of the forests. At this juncture, awareness alone can bring down the incidence of forest fire. During campaigning, it was found that people are totally unaware of biodiversity conservation concept. After awareness the committee which was formed has shown progressive result due to interaction between the staff, committee members and local people. Initial period of interaction, on the other hand, has often brought forward the individuals who had long term commitment to the cause.

This case study was documented by a team of scientists, from Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, India along with the then District Forest officer Mr. Rajiv K.Srivastava who launched the innovative scheme in the division.

Rajiv K. Srivastava
Deputy Conservator of Forests
Genetics Division
Bharathi Park Road
Coimbatore – 641 043
Tamil Nadu
INDIA

References

Ministry of Environment and Forests. 1987. Annual report of forest survey of India.
Ministry of Environment and Forests. 1988 OEF. National forest policy.
Champion, H.G., and S.K.Seth. 1968. A revised survey of forest types of India. Manager of publications.
Rodgers, W.A. 1985. The role of fire in the management of wildlife habitat – A review. Indian Forester Vol.112, No. 10, 145-157.
Saigal, P.M. 1989. A suggested classification of forest fires in India by types and causes. Paper presented at the National Seminar on Forest Fire Fighting, Kulamaru (Kerala), 2-3 November 1989.

Country Notes
IFFN No. 21

24. November 2017/by GFMCadmin

India: Forest Fire Causing Poor Stocking of Santalum Album and Terminalia Chebula in Southern India (FFN No. 22 – April 2000)

in

Forest Fire Causing Poor Stocking of Santalum Album and Terminalia Chebula in Southern India

(IFFN No. 22 -April 2000, p. 28-30)

Forest fires whether natural or unnatural have a significant role in the Eco-system dynamics. The unnatural fire in Indian Sub-Continent is at the maximum due to various causes. Amongst them the main culprits are graziers, encroachers, M.F.P collectors etc. who put fire in the forest just to fetch their basic needs and they are totally unaware of the biodiversity and its importance. In the process of repeated fires not only it is withdrawing soil support system but also leads to innumerable loss of various flora, fauna, insects, arthropods etc. each of which plays a vital role in the growth of forest. Any disturbance to one of them leads to imbalance the ecosystem. Recurrent fire decreases the green cover through prevention of regeneration and leads to the slow death of the forest (Ranganathan 1934). It also increases erosion and alters the physical and chemical properties of the soil converting organic ground cover to soluble ash and modifying the microclimate through the removal of overhead foliage. The soluble ash is washed away in the next rain. Fires can also make trees more susceptible to insect attack. For the sustainable development of the forests repeated forest fires has to be checked. Otherwise the loss of biodiversity will be on the increase every year at the cruel hands of few human beings and many of the species will disappear even before they are documneted.

The biological resources – genes, species and ecosystem which have actual and potential values to the people – are the physical manifestation of the globes biological diversity i.e. Biodiversity which is simply stated as the variety and variability among the living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur. Species are the building, blocks of ecosystems, which provide the life support systems for humans. Biodiversity is an umbrella term covering the totality of species, genes and ecosystems but biological resources can actually be managed. (Srivastava 1998) They can be consumed or replenished and they can be the subjects of directed conservation action. The loss of the world’s biodiversity, mainly from habitat destruction, forest fires, over harvesting, pollution and inappropriate introduction of foreign plants and animals is continuing. Natural plant cover being the important natural resources of the earth has been steadily depleted in the recent past. It is estimated that upto half the world’s woodlands and forested areas might have vanished since 1950 and yearly losses are not between 1-22 percent i.e. 20-50 million acres on global basis. Therefore the importance of conserving the valuable natural resources is very much felt.

The ancient civilization leads to the modern civilization and the latter leads to industrialization. In the process of which the human beings have evolved, no doubt, modern techniques at the cost of destruction of own habitats. Indiscriminate cutting, and forest fire have attributed to poor stocking to the composition of various flora and fauna. In this paper two very important species which have been severely affected in southern India by way of human interference and recurrent fire is highlighted. One is Santalum album, the costliest scented wood in the world while the other one is Terminalia chebula, a highly medicinal valued species.

Santalum Album

Sandalwood is the fragrant heartwood species of genus Santalum (family Santalacceae). In India, the genus is represented by Santalum album Linn. Its wood, known commercially as “East Indian Sandal wood” and essential oil from it as “East Indian Sandalwood oil” are among the oldest known perfumery materials. The word Sandal has been derived from Chandana (Sanskrit) and Chandan (Persian). It is called Safed Chandan in Hindi, Srigandha, Gandha in Kannada. Sandanam in Tamil, Chandanamu in Telegu. Histo rical review reveals that sandalwood has been referred to in Indian mythology ,folklore and ancient scriptures. It is generally accepted that sandal is indigenous to peninsular India as its history of recorded occurrence dates back to at least 2500 years. The sandal family is distributed between 30° North and 40° South from Indonesia in the West to Juan Fernandez Island in the North, to New Zealand in the South. (ICFRE).

In India Santalum album is found all over the country, with over 90% of the area in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu covering 8300 Sq.Kms. In Karnataka it naturally in the southern as well as Western parts over an area of 5000 Sq.kms. In Tamil Vadu, it is distributed over an area of 3000 Sq.kms. and dense population exists in North Arcot (Javadis and Yelagiri hills) and Chitteri hills. The other states where sandal trees are found are Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Manipur.

The tree flourishes well from sea level upto 1800m altitude in different types of soil like sandy, clayey red soils, lateritic loamy and even in black cotton soils. Trees growing on. stony or gravelly soils are known to have more highly scented wood. Generally this species is located in the undulating terrains and survives well in the moderate rainfall of 600 to 1600mm and temperature varying between 20°C and 45°C. It grows well in early stages under partial shade but at the middle and later stages shows intolerance to heavy overhead shade.

Approximately a century back the habitat was not under severe pressure and was thriving well. Slowly and slowly with increase in population, greed indiscriminate felling and recurrent fires have depleted the stocking, Generally Santalum album fruits in two seasons in April-May and subsequently in October-November. But these new recruits which come up well in the South west monsoon and North east monsoon get affected with severe blows of forest fire in the month of January – April leaving behind poor stocking of species leading to mosaic pattern of its distribution.

Even some time the fire is so severe that it affects the cortex of the tree thereby the tree develops crack and is easily attacked by insects and in the process of which the tree dies. It. has been noticed that the areas more prone to the fire are subject to the attack of spike diseases in the tree. McCarthy has first noticed it as early as 1899 in Frazerpet (Coorg, Karnataka). The disease is caused by mycoplasma like organism. It occurs at any stage of development of the tree. As the disease progresses, the new leaves become smaller, narrower or more pointed and fewer in number with each successive year until the new shoots give an appearance of fine spike. At the advanced stage of disease, the inter-nodal distance on twigs becomes small, haustorial connection between the host and sandal breaks and the plant dies in about 2 to 3 years. Apart from this, due to recurrent fire, invasion of exotic weed Lantana camara in this type of forests does not allow the species to grow in its composition in any way and influence of spike disease in Santalum album in other way. in one way forest fire affects the matured trees by giving continuous heat effect to the trunk which subsequently leads to suppression of growth and in other way the natural regeneration which already existed in the previous years gets washed away with the flame of forest fire. This vicious process of destruction of this particular species has lead to the poor stocking in Southern India on the one hand by way of forest fire and on the other by indiscriminate cutting by sandalwood smuggling.

Terminalia Chebula

Terminalia chebula, moderate sized, large deciduous tree with round crown, spreading branches and usually short trunk throughout in Burma it often grows tall and straight with dark brown colour bark often longitudinally cracked, exfoliating in woody scales. It is widely distributed in the greater part of India and Burma in mixed deciduous forests of comparatively dry types. It extends to considerable elevation upto 5000′ in outer Himalayas. In Burma it occurs in dry deciduous forests both in upper and lower mixed types along with Teak, Terminalia tomentosa and their associates. It feels comfortable to laterite, clayey as well as sandy soils. In the peninsular India it is found in mixed deciduous forests to dry deciduous forests and extends upto high elevation of 3000′. In Tamil Nadu it is one of the pride tree in the Eastern Ghats. Specifically Kalrayan hills is rich in best base population of Terminalia chebula. (Anon 1996). It survives well with the temperature between minimum 30° – 60° F. and 100° – 180° F and rainfall from 30″ to 130″. It is fairly hardy against frost as well as drought. It withstands fire well and has good powers of recovery from burning. It Coppices fairly well. The fruit is drupe, and ellipsoid to obviate in shape with yellowish orange brown.

Terminalia chebula is widely distributed from Himalayas to Southern India. The best stocking, is confined to lower Himalayas as well as Southern India particularly in Kalrayans and Pachayamalai hills of Eastern Ghats. But these hills, which in the past had very good stocking were badly affected due to fragmentation of these hillocks due to human pressure by way of illicit lopping and chopping and annual burning of the area in the process of collecting fruits, which subsequently has given a severe blow on the soil texture. The type of forest where it has found place gets frequently burnt and in the process of which seeds and new recruits get wiped away with the sweep of flame in the forest fire and in the next rain, it takes away the top fertile soil. This vicious process attributes to sterility and poor stocking of species annually. The humus formation process is stopped. Microorganism’s population gets reduced subsequently leaving behind sterile soil, which is insufficient for the germination of seed of Terminalia chebula. As Terminalia chebula is a drupe and hard-coated seed it requires longer period for its decay, which is only possible with. the help of moisture and sufficient humus. The soil certainly lacks these contents in this area the result of which is at present the different age plants are not available in this forests. Only old trees are standing in the hills. Once felled down, these trees will be facing extinction the next century. Since this particular species is found only in the slopes, in summer due to heavy wind they fall down. Unless it is checked, the stocking of this particular species cannot be improved.

Conclusions

The two important species Santalum album and Terminalia chebula, which is having highly commercial value and medicinal value respectively is facing severe problem due to forest fire leaving behind poor stocking. In the form. of fire, new recruits get. eloped away. Unless sincere efforts is not being made this species will be at the verge of extinction which can be done by way of creating awareness so that intentional fire can be avoided to facilitate germination of these species for better stocking. It also requires creation of germplasm bank of’ these by identification of best phenotypes and genotypes and multiplication for planting stock improvement.

Rajiv K. Srivastava
Deputy Conservator of Forests
Dhamapuri Division
Dharmapuri-636 705
Tamilnadu
INDIA

References

Anon, 1996; Wealth of India Raw material C.S.I.R., New Delhi No. 10 pp 177-179

Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education; Dehra Dun; Brochure Sandal; 1997

Ranganathan C.R ; 1934; Working plan for the North Coimbatore forest division, Chennai

Srivastava. K. Rajiv, K. Chidambaram and G. Kumaravelu 1998; Impact of forest fire and biotic interference on the biodiversity of Eastern ghats; Indian Forester, May, 1999.

Country Notes
IFFN No. 22

24. November 2017/by GFMCadmin

Fire Situation in India (IFFN No. 26)

in
Fire Situation in India

(IFFN No. 26 – January 2002, p. 23-27)

Introduction

India, with a forest cover of 76.4 million hectares, contains a variety of climate zones, including the tropical south, northwestern deserts, Himalayan mountains, and the wet north-east. Forests are widely distributed in the country. India’s forests are endowed with a variety of biomes and biological communities. The forest vegetation in the country varies from tropical evergreen forests in the West Coast and in the Northeast to alpine forests in the Himalayas in the North. In between the two extremes, there are semi-evergreen forests, deciduous forests, sub-tropical broad-leaved hill forests, sub-tropical pine forests, and sub-tropical montane temperate forests.

With increasing population pressure, the forest cover of the country is deteriorating at an alarming rate. Along with various factors, forest fires are a major cause of degradation of Indian forests. According to a Forest Survey of India Report, about 50 percent of forest areas in the country are fire prone (ranging from 50 percent in some states to 90 percent in the others). About 6 percent of the forests are prone to severe fire damage.

Ecological, economic and social impacts of the forest fire

The ecological and socio-economic consequences of wildland fires in India include:

Loss of timber, loss of bio-diversity, loss of wildlife habitat, global warming, soil erosion, loss of fuelwood and fodder, damage to water and other natural resources, loss of natural regeneration. Estimated average tangible annual loss due to forest fires in country is Rs.440 crore (US$ 100 millions approximately).

The vulnerability of the Indian forests to fire varies from place to place depending upon the type of vegetation and the climate. The coniferous forest in the Himalayan region comprising of fir (Abies spp.), spruce (Picea smithiana), Cedrus deodara, Pinus roxburgii and Pinus wallichiana etc. is very prone to fire. Every year there are one or two major incidences of forest fire in this region. The other parts of the country dominated by deciduous forests are also damaged by fire (see Table 1).

Table 1. Susceptibility and vulnerability of Indian forests to wildfire

Type of Forests Fire frequent

(%)
Fire Occasional

(%)

1 Coniferous
8

40

2
Moist Deciduous

15

60

3 Dry Deciduous
5

35

4 Wet/Semi-Evergreen
9

40

5 Northeastern Region
50

45

Various regions of the country have different normal and peak fire seasons, which normally vary from January to June. In the plains of northern and central India, most of the forest fires occur between February and June. In the hills of northern India fire season starts later and most of the fires are reported between April and June. In the southern part of the country, fire season extends from January to May. In the Himalayan region, fires are common in May and June.

Summary of major wild fire impacts on people, property, and natural resources during the 1990s

During the 1990s, several forest fires occurred in the hills of Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh. From 1995 to 1999, fire hazards in these two states assumed dangerous dimensions. An area of 677 700 hectares was affected by these fires. The estimated timber loss from these hazards was US $ 43 million. Other losses due to these fires included loss of soil fertility, soil erosion, loss of employment, drying up of water resources, and loss of bio-diversity. These fires brought a major change in the microclimate of the region in the form of soil moisture balance and increased evaporation. The dense smoke from the fires affected visibility up to 14 000 feet.

Beside these major forest fires, the losses from the other fires reported from 13 states for the period 1994-1996 came to US $ 20 million. One other major fire, reported from the state of Tamil Nadu, for the year 1996-1997 in sandal wood forest caused a loss of approximately US $ 43 million. Losses in productivity of the land, impacts on regeneration of species, and deleterious impacts on water shed also resulted from the forest fires.

Figure 1.Regularly occurring surface fires and the impacts of browsing and trampling by cattle lead to severe site degradation in the steep slopes of the Himalayan foothills in India. The photograph shows a typical situation in a Pinusroxburghii forest near Nainital, Uttar Pradesh. Photo: GFMC.

Wildfire statistics

In India there are no comprehensive data to indicate the loss to forests in terms of area burned, values, and volume and regeneration damaged by fire. The available forest fire statistics are not reliable because they underestimate fire numbers and area burned. The reason behind this is attributed to the fear of accountability. However, Forest Survey of India in a country-wide study in 1995 estimated that about 1.45 million hectares of forest are affected by fire annually. According to an assessment of the Forest Protection Division of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, 3.73 million hectares of forests are affected by fires, annually in India.

Table 2. Extent of fire incidence in forest areas of the country (based on the inventory conducted by the Forest Survey of India since its inception)

In India there are very few cases of fire due to natural causes. The majority of the forest fires (99 percent) in the country are human caused. It is widely acknowledged that most of these fires are caused by the people deliberately and have a close relationship to their socio-economic conditions. Grazing, shifting cultivation, and collection of minor forest products by villagers are major causes of fires in India. Carelessness of the picnickers, travellers, and campers are also responsible for forest fires.

Operational fire management systems and organizations

According to the Constitution of India, the central and state governments in the country are enabled to legislate on forestry issues. The implementation part of the forest policy/programmes lies with the state government. Thus, fire prevention, detection, and suppression activities are the responsibility of the state governments’ forestry departments. The policy, planning, and financing are the primary responsibility of the Central Government. There is generally no separate department for carrying out forest fire management in the states. The regular staff of the forest departments in the states carries out various activities of forest fire management. During forest fire seasons in some of the divisions, fire watchers are recruited by the state governments as a special provision. At the central level, the Ministry of Environment and Forests is the ministry responsible for forest conservation and protection. Forest fire management is administered by the “Forest Protection Division” of the Ministry, which is headed by a Deputy Inspector General of Forests. The Ministry is implementing a plan called “Modern Forest Fire Control Methods” in India under which state governments are provided financial assistance for fire prevention and control. This assistance is being used by the state governments for procuring hand tools, fire resistant clothes, firefighting tools, radios, fire watch towers, fire finders, creation of fire lines, research, training, and publicity on firefighting. This project is carried out in fourteen states and covers more than 70 percent of the forest area of the country.

Community involvement

In India, Joint Forest Management (JFM) Committees have been established at the village level to involve people in forest protection and conservation. At present there are 36 165 JFM committees throughout the country, covering an area of more than 10.24 million hectares. These JFM committees also have been given responsibilities to protect the forests from fires. For this purpose, the Modern Forest Fire Control plan is being revised and JFM is being made an integral component of the forest fire prevention strategy. Use of aircraft and helicopters has not been very cost effective in the fire management program and the Air Operation Wing is being closed down. For emergency purposes, however, a provision for hiring aircraft for transportation of crews and water is being maintained. The Government of India has issued national forest fire prevention and control guidelines. Salient features of the guidelines include identification of vulnerable areas on maps, creation of a data bank on forest fires, evolving fire dangers, fire forecasting system, provisions for a crisis management group, involvement of JFM committees, and efficient enforcement of legal provisions.

Research Issues

In India, there is an urgent need to initiate research in the fields of fire detection, suppression, and fire ecology for better management of forest fires. The research and technology developed in western countries always suitable for the Indian environment. Thus, it is essential that original research specific for Indian conditions be conducted. The Government is considering setting up a National Institute of Forest Fire Management with satellite centres in different parts of the country to bring the latest forest fire fighting technologies to India through proper research, training of personnel, and technology transfer on a long term basis.

Public policies concerning fire

India’s National Forest Policy (1988) presents a visionary strategy for forest conservation and management and emphasizes protection of forests against encroachment, fire, and grazing. It states that “The incidence of forest fires in the country is high. Standing trees and fodder are destroyed on a large scale and natural regeneration annihilated by such fires. Special precautions should be taken during the fire season. Improved and modern management practices should be adopted to deal with forest fire”. This policy provides a positive step towards protection of forests from fire. The legal and policy framework exists in support of fire protection in the country.

The needs of the fire management

The incidence of forest fires in the country is on the increase and more area is burned each year. The major cause of this failure is the piecemeal approach to the problem. Both the national focus and the technical resources required for sustaining a systematic forest fire management programme are lacking in the country. Important forest fire management elements like strategic fire centres, coordination among Ministries, funding, human resource development, fire research, fire management, and extension programmes are missing.
Taking into consideration the serious nature of the problem, it is necessary to make some major improvements in the forest fire management strategy for the country. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, has prepared a National Master Plan for Forest Fire Control. This plan proposes to introduce a well-coordinated and integrated fire-management programme that includes the following components:

Prevention of human-caused fires through education and environmental modification. It will include silvicultural activities, engineering works, people participation, and education and enforcement. It is proposed that more emphasis be given to people participation through Joint Forest Fire Management for fire prevention.

Prompt detection of fires through a well coordinated network of observation points, efficient ground patrolling, and communication networks. Remote sensing technology is to be given due importance in fire detection. For successful fire management and administration, a National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) and Fire Forecasting System are to be developed in the country.

Fast initial attack measures.

Vigorous follow up action.

Introducing a forest fuel modification system at strategic points.

Firefighting resources.

Each of the above components plays an important role in the success of the entire system of fire management. Special emphasis is to be given to research, training, and development.

IFFN/GFMC contribution submitted by:

Vinod K. Bahuguna
Ministry of Environment and Forests
New Delhi, India

and

Satendra Singh
Ministry of Rural Development
New Delhi, India

Contact:

V.K. Bahuguna
Deputy Inspector General of Forests
Ministry of Environment & Forests
Government of India
Paryavaran Bhawan, C.G.O. Complex
Lodhi Road
New-Delhi 110 003
INDIA
Fax: ++91-11-436-3232
e-mail: <bahugunaifs@yahoo.com>

References

Bahuguna, V.K. 1999. Forest fire prevention and control strategies in India. International Forest Fire News No. 20, 5-9.

Saigal, R. 1990. Técnicas modernas de control de incendios forestales: experiencia de la India. Unasylva Vol. 41, No. 162, 21-27.

Srivastava, R. 1999a. Controlling forest fire incidences by generating awareness. A case study from Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, Coimbatore, India. International Forest Fire News No. 20, 10-15.

Srivastava, R. 1999b. Forest fire and its prevention by generating environmental awareness in the rural masses. International Forest Fire News No. 21, 36-47.

Srivastava, R. 2000. Forest fire causing poor stocking of Santalum album and Terminalia Chebula in Southern India. International Forest Fire News No. 22, 36-47.

Country Notes
IFFN No. 26

24. November 2017/by GFMCadmin

Lessons from Joint Forest Management (IFFN No. 26)

in
Community involvement in forest fire prevention and control:

Lessons from Joint Forest Management (JFM)

(IFFN No. 26 – January 2002, p. 28-31)

Introduction

Fire is a common feature in the Indian forests every year, causing incalculable damage to the forest wealth and ecosystem. High proportions of these fires are attributed to man-made reasons either deliberately or accidentally. Also, the components of fires are very localized and the people who live in the locality know the local conditions best. Therefore, efforts to involve communities in fire prevention and control offer a viable alternative to minimize the damage due to fire losses. This necessitates a better understanding of the conditions under which the community would participate in fire prevention and control.

The purpose of this article is to outline the lessons learned from community-based approaches like Joint Forest Management (JFM) in fire prevention and control. It also argues that effective policy for fire management cannot rely on technological solutions only separate from the societal context. It suggests that fire management require a more balanced approach involving suitable technical practices that are simple, compatible as well as adaptable to local conditions and social arrangements and awareness campaigns.

Forest fires in India

In India forest fires are significant and one of the increasing contributory factors in the degradation of existing forest resources (Saigal 1999). Its is estimated that the proportion of forest areas, prone to forest fires annually ranges from 33% in some of the states to over 90% in other (MOEF 1987). Although the data on forest fire loss is very sketchy and fragmented according to one estimate the total reported loss from the states of the union is around Rs 35 crores (US $ 7.3 million) annually (Bahuguna 1999).

Majorities of forest fires in India are mad-made and main causes of fire being:

Deforestation activities: conversion of forest land to agriculture, pasture development, etc.

Traditional slash and burn/shifting agriculture

Grazing land management: Setting of fires in forests by villagers for getting fresh blade of grass, fodder, etc.

Collection and use of NWFPs: e.g. fires set for the purpose of collection of honey, Sal (Shorea robusta) seeds, flowers of Mahua (Madhuca indica) etc.

Forest/human habitation interface: e.g. uncontrolled fire set to burn leaves and other biomass from agriculture fields and spreading to fringe forest areas, also fire set to scare the wildlife etc.

Conflicts over the land right claims and last but not the least

Fire caused by negligence

The situation is further exacerbated by other contributory factors such as

Poverty, social conflicts, and lack of incentives for communities to participate in forest fires prevention and control

Weakness in policies and legislation and their implementation: for instance the Section 79 (1) of Indian Forest Act, 1927 makes provision for any person who exercises rights in forests to assist authorities in prevention and control but the reality is that it seldom happens

Absence of any well defined forest fire management policy and

Institutional inability to learn from past experiences

Forest fires in the country are mostly experienced during summer months from April to June, though the extent and type varies from state to state, type of forest as well climatic conditions like a prolonged spell of dry conditions or delay in the arrival of monsoon etc.

Involving local communities in fire prevention and control

Over the years, there has been a significant decline in the prioritization of fire management in the forest management objectives. With various social sectors competing for funds, the funding for the fire prevention and control has also gone down or has been diverted to schemes like ‘employment generation’ or even the establishment expenses of the forest department. In fact at present most of the states do not have any regular schemes/funds for prevention and control of forest fires (Singh 1997). With meager human resource at its disposal (e.g. as per one of the estimates on an average 500 ha of forests have to be patrolled by one forest guard), the forest departments in most of the states are poorly equipped to prevent or control the spread of forest fires. This situation and the fact that forests are under tremendous pressure, due to increasing population pressure and hence commensurate demand of land, forest products etc necessitates exploration of alternatives to arrest this phenomenon. Attempts to elicit peoples’ participation in fire control offers hope of minimizing the damage caused by fires. In this context, Joint Forest Management (JFM) assumes an important role in fire prevention and control. JFM has been a significant development in the context of institutional arrangements pertaining to forest management in India. The effective involvement of local communities in evolving sustainable forest management systems was looked upon as an important approach to address the long-standing problems of deforestation and land degradation in India.

The National Forest Policy (1988) and Joint Forest Management (JFM) Guidelines (1990) of the Government of India acknowledged and endorsed this system of management, which supports the involvement of village communities and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in the regeneration, management and protection of degraded forests. The conducive environment created by these enabling legal and administrative measures is manifested in the fact that as many as 22 State Governments have issued directions to the respective State Forest Departments for the adoption of JFM. At present about 36,130 forest protection committees are protecting about 10.25 million ha of forest area in the country (MOEF 1999). These committees operational in various states are assisting the forest department in forest protection (including fire prevention and control) and management, though the extent of participation and contribution to efforts varies.

A very definitive lesson and pre-requisite for community-based approach to fire management, which emerges out of the JFM experience in forest protection, is that the for communities with stake in forests would be sufficiently motivated to prevent and control forest fires if their livelihood and subsistence needs are met. The JFM program is an example of a participatory approach in which people co-operate with forest department in forest protection in return for economic benefits.

Figure 1. Meeting of a Village Forest Committee (VFC) for fire prevention and control. Photo: C.Kumar

Lessons learned from JFM

The JFM program in various states of the country has served to increase the stake of forest-dependent communities in the surrounding forest areas. The lessons learnt from the experience of community involvement in fire prevention can be summarised as follows:

Participatory approach in fire prevention and control

The community-based fire management has to rely extremely on the positive relationship between the people in the rural space and their forest. Mutual confidence and public support has to be created by participatory approaches e.g. incentives, income generation activities, involvement in production enterprises etc. for the involvement of communities in fire prevention and control (Goldammer 2000).

The study of fire in the JFM and non-JFM areas clearly reveal that despite similar kind of dependence on the forest people’s response to forest fire differed. This was discerned particularly in the response of JFM villages where people felt duty bound to put out the fire in the forest because they have a stake in it. Remarks like ‘the forest now belongs to us and we feel obliged to protect it‘ were common in JFM villages, whereas the non-JFM villages were non-enthusiastic about such voluntary efforts. Their efforts were mainly confined to check spread of forest fires to their agricultural fields.

Creating awareness among the community of loss due forest fires

People’s view on the occurrence of forest fires is of vital importance in assessing the impact of community efforts at fire control. It is not surprising that socio-economic and cultural surveys on fire causes often reveal that most important reason for failure of prevention of forest fires is related to the fact that communities do not realise the economic and ecological losses due to forest fires. Therefore, an efficient motivation strategy for fire prevention requires an initial understanding of the cultural, socio-economic and psychological background of community perception of fire losses.

Within the village forest protection committees (VFCs) in JFM villages, interestingly it was observed that the assurance of economic incentives in the form of fuelwood, fodder or non-timber forest produce etc. need not be the sole factor which motivated the communities to protect the forests from fire. What was more important was the level of community awareness of the potential losses that could result from forest fires. For instance basket making community in Haryana, whose livelihood is greatly dependent on the availability of bamboo, have not only been active in preventing and controlling fire in their area, but also of the adjoining area to prevent its spread to their forests.

Equity in benefit sharing

This experience is related to the aspect of causes of forest fires. It necessitates that the study of causes of fires should involve besides other causative factors, motives and behavior of communities. Detailed information about the causes and thorough understanding of the motivation behind the forest fires provides the necessary background for prevention work. The job is then to reach and influence people to do or not to do something.

Equity in benefit sharing has been another factor, which was found to affect the community efforts to control forest fires. In the absence of an equitable distribution system of incentives, there were cases of the aggrieved group deliberately setting forest fires.

Complexity of legal provisions and lack of enforcement

Though the subject of law and its enforcement in relation to forest fires is a wide and complex subject and opinions may differ as to the part of it should play in prevention and control of forest fires in a democratic set-up. Generally speaking an adequate legal enactment accompanied by enforcement is an indispensable ingredient of forest fire prevention.

The experience of under-reporting due to provision of lodging a First Incidence Report (FIR) with the local police by the Forest Guard on spotting a fire in his area and subsequent litigation reflects on the issue of re-consideration of reporting provisions. Also lack of voluntary participation despite provisions in the Indian Forest Act brings forth the issue of lack of enforcement mechanisms.

Clarity of rights and responsibilities of the communities

Clear specification of future benefits (in the form benefit sharing statement) that will accrue to the community at the time of the final harvest could bolster community efforts at fire protection.

It was found that some of the village forest committees (VFCs) besides putting out the fires in the forest areas where they have their rights also voluntarily put out fires in the Reserve Forest areas where they do not have any major rights. In the various meetings with these VFCs the issue of availing benefits from these forest also came up. Also apprehension of future benefits from timber sharing at the time of final harvest of forest crop protected by them was found to cause the decreased enthusiasm of village communities in fire protection and prevention.

Techniques of fire prevention

Formal training in fire prevention and control is invaluable for preparing a nucleus of people for leading fire prevention and control programs. This is because with untrained people the control of fire becomes difficult.

The usual method of fire fighting that is followed by using earth, by beating and by counter fighting. Usually all mild fires are extinguished by beating them out with broom made of cut branches and twigs. Counter firing is also adopted if the fire is so fierce that fire-fighting crew can not stand near the head to beat it out. However it is was observed that most of the villagers and even some forest staff were not adequately aware of employing these techniques.

Conclusion

The JFM experience across the states has clearly brought out that the community involvement can play an important role in minimising the damage caused by forest fires. The adage ‘prevention is better than cure’ is most apt to emphasise the role of village communities in fire prevention. However it needs to be emphasised that community participation in fire prevention is not an end in itself. Proper planning is imperative for fire prevention. This calls for the three general approaches to work in tandem i.e. Education, Engineering and Enforcement (Nair 1992). Motivation of community to participate in fire prevention and control should follow education to underscore its importance. An important strategy in fire prevention is to educate the villagers in the forest area and along its fringe regarding the care required to keep fires well under control if lit for legitimate purposes like for example, subjecting agricultural plots to a light burn as a pre-monsoon preparation. An education strategy must appreciate that a series of edicts will not work unless the villagers are convinced about the harmful effects of fire in context of their dependence on the forest resource. Also villagers believe most in what they see than what they hear. Taking groups of villagers to burnt areas and explaining the fire effects will be useful.

Hazard reduction or limiting the exposure of forests to fire risks constitutes mainly the engineering aspect (Brown and Davis 1973). This also included clearing along paths, early and control burning of vulnerable areas, fire lines etc.

Ensuring that the public abides by the rules and regulation set out for prevention of fires calls for effective enforcement of regulations.

Finally, while community participation is important, it needs to be further augmented with appropriate (a) pre-fire planning and fire prevention strategy like developing fire plans, fire maps, capacity building through training, pilot demonstration, (b) fire suppression mechanism, and (c) and if necessary post-fire rehabilitation and management.

IFFN/GFMC contribution submitted by:

Chetan Kumar, Research Associate
TERI, D S Block Habitat Place
Lodi Road, Delhi-3
INDIA

Fax:                           ++91-11-4682144/4682145
Tel:                            ++91-11-4682100/4682111
e-mail:                       chetank@teri.res.in

References

Bahuguna, V. K. 1999. Forest fire prevention and control strategies in India. International Forest Fire News. 20, 5-9.

Brown, A. A., and K. P. Davis. 1973. Forest Fire: Control and Use. McGraw Hill, New York

Goldammer, J. G. 2000. Overview of fire and smoke management issues and options in Tropical Vegetation. The Global Fire Monitoring Center / Fire Globe Web site

http://www.uni-freiburg.de/fireglobe/se_asia/background/sea_1.html (11 January, 2000).

Ministry of Environment & Forests (MOEF). 1991. State of Forest Report, 1999 Government of India.

Nair, K. K. 1992. Prevention of Forest fires. National Seminar on Forest Fires Report, 1992. Session II.

Saigal, R. 1999. Modern forest fire control: The Indian experience. Unasylva 41, 167.

Singh, U. M. 1997. Fighting forest fires. Yojana, 41, 8. 63-72

Country Notes
IFFN No. 26

24. November 2017/by GFMCadmin

Forest Fire and biotic interferences (IFFN No. 26)

in
Forest Fire and Biotic Interferences-A Great Threat to Nilgiri Biosphere

(IFFN No. 26 – January 2002, p. 32-36)

Introduction

India constitutes one of the mega biodiversity countries of the world, which is abundant with unique and diversified floral and faunal wealth. Western Ghats of peninsular India, a green lung between bay of Bengal and Arabian sea plays a vital role regarding biodiversity in southern India. The prevailing tropical climate coupled with physical and biotic factors have unitedly made an impact on resources of many ecosystems, which are highly complex and fragile in nature. The land ecosystem is facing mounting problems in the hands of man. Biotic pressure due to increasing populations periodically covers larger areas in the tropical forests of southern India destroying timber and other properties.

Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR) in western ghats is a major floristic region of southern India. Biotic influence in this area is very heavy. The natural vegetation of the higher elevation of the Nilgiri plateau comprises of patches of sholas (montane broad-leaved evergreen forest) and grassland (scrub-savannah). The montane forests are generally confined to the sheltered sites such as valleys, hollows and depressions where moisture is higher. The grassland comprises of grasses, herbs and shrubs in varying proportions. Since population explosion, heavy biotic pressure existing continuous in these forests and grassland. Present paper deals with land use change and other human interference in these forests.

Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

The NBR is most important floristic region embraces the sanctuary complex of Wayanad, Nagerhole, Bandipur and Mudumalai. It has a total area of 5520 km² with core area of 1240 km² and buffer zone of 4280 km². This area is lies in Western Ghats of peninsular India. It was declared the first biosphere reserve of India on 1 September 1986. It has a unique bio-geographic region with many endemic floral and faunal species covering three states i.e. Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karanataka. Entire area is having countless micro flora, fauna and the germplasm bank of various rare, threatened and endemic species and are facing continuous pressure by one way or the other. The average annual rainfall of this reserve ranges from 500 to 7000 mm.

Table 1. Percentage of protected area, reserve forests and core area of the NBR in the three states

State Protected Area Reserve Forests Core Area

Sq. Km % Sq. Km % Sq. Km %

Karnataka 1513.56 64.48 462.70 14.49 701.80 56.58

Kerala 433.92 18.49 858.80 26.90 264.50 21.32

Tamil Nadu 399.56 17.03 1870.66 58.60 274.00 22.09

Belonging to the Indo-Malayan realm, its biodiversity ranges from tropical dry deciduous forests to tropical rain forests. The NBR has more area uner reserve forests (59%) than the protected area in Tamil Nadu (Table1). Although these forests are being subjected to severe biotic pressures, it has good population of Elephant (Elephas maximus), Gaur (Bos gaurus), Sambhar (Cervus univolor), Nilgiri Langur, Nilgiri Tahr, Four Horned Antelope, Blackbuck, hyena (Hyaena hyaena), Tiger, Leopard and Wild Dogs. The main reason for large-scale biodiversity is due to the fact that it is having conducive climatic conditions. The average high annual rainfall and the variation in temperature also reflects in a vast range in different types of forests from dry deciduous to montane evergreen forests. However, the most distinct feature is the development of the tropical wet evergreen forests, more prominent along the windward side of the humid tropical belt of the southern region. These forests are characterized by multistoried structure with emergent species raising their crowns above the general canopy layer, and as a result imparting undulating look to the canopy surface. The tallest emergent trees may grow up to 60m with slender and clear boles and often buttressed at base. The light coloured bark in a number of tree species is less than 3 mm thick. The copious growth of feeder roots in the soil surface occupying the interface of the decaying litter layer and mineral matrix of the soil is yet another characteristic of these forests. The biodiversity spread over wide ranges of hills of Nilgiris, Neelambur and Siruvani hills from where numerous rivers rolls down to the below viz. Bhawani, Siruwani, Cauvery and Shailkudri etc.

A characteristic feature of this biosphere is the occurrence of shoals (montane forests) above 1500 m. They are found in patches in hollows and sheltered folds surrounded by rolling downs in the Anamalais, Nilgiri and Palni hills and the high ranges of Kerala and Karnataka. Montane evergreen forests have thick undergrowth; the trees are short boled and attain a low height of 15-20m. That the shoal forest community had wider distribution in the past has been established through pollen analytical investigations. The rich soil exposed after the clearance of forest, erodes rapidly under the prevalent climatic conditions and the operating biotic factors and the absence of suitable edaphic conditions prevent the regeneration of these forests. This non-regenerating, and fast receding shoal forest is a dying community; more appropriately called a ‘living fossil community’ (Vishnu-Mittre and Gupta 1968). Meher-Homji (1965) opines that two adverse factors, viz. frost during the cold season, and fire during the drier months, prevent the spread of the shoals.

Cattle Pressure

The loss of grasslands has another severe impact on the existing forests. Traditionally the Todas used the grasslands to graze their buffaloes and probably the first cattle in this area did the same. But with the increasing cattle number and decreasing grasslands the only place left where the cattle could be fed was the shoals and they were made full pressure on sholas. Moreover, the grasses dry out in the winter and is unpalatable, so this is another reason for the use of shoals by the cattle and especially in this period the sholas seem to be totally relied upon. People prefer to be surrounded with cultivated plants and farms along with more and more number of animals, which resulted heavy damages to sholas and grassland (Chitrapu 1986).

Over-grazing has been identified as a factor responsible for the degradation of the forests ad the resultant increase in the number of weeds. The spread of such weeds has taken away much of the fodder resources as such obnoxious weeds cannot be grazed upon. Measures to contain such factors, albeit minor, have been suggested by Gadgil (1984).

Fire Hazards

The greatest pressure on forest is by way of forest fire. The man for his own greed is putting fire every year in one or the other part of Nilgiri biosphere causing more than 1000 ha annually heavily intentional fire which is not only retarding the growth of existing standing vegetation but also not allowing new recruits to emerge out on the forest floor (Srivastava 1997). In the process of which many endemic species are disappearing from their native place. The exotics which were introduced long back such as wattle, Eucalyptus, Eupatorium, Cestrum, Eulex species in the Nilgiri plateau having strong germination percentage and invading very fast in fire burnt areas. The ill effects of this are too well known and too numerous to be enumerated. Spread of alien weeds can be destructive to native species. More importantly, species like Lantana camara var aculeata and recently Eupatorium odaratum, Mikania cordata, Parthenium hysterophorus, Eulex europeaus, Cestrum nigrum. Cassia tora etc have invaded the NBR and tend to smother the natural vegetation. The wattle, introduced long back, has now become a weed.

Intentional setting fire to the seasonally dry forests has disastrous effect so much so that such forests may not resume the original shape at all. In addition to slash-and-burn cultivation practiced almost throughout the NBR also causing ill effects to the vegetation.

Ascending growth of human and cattle population accelerate the forest fires which play a predominant role in the process of devastation of large areas. The local cattle grazers often set ablaze grazing areas in the hope of getting new shoots. The head loaders destroy vegetation to create pathway through the forests. The encroachers set fire to forest in order to clear the land for agricultural purpose. The careless tourists throwing away lighted matches and cigarette butts start fire, which not only reduce the trees and herbs to ashes but also damage of wildlife.

Forest fires and indiscriminate grazing are the most important factors that affect the natural regeneration in the forest and cause its degradation. These results further reveal that moist deciduous forest have more incidences of fire while dry deciduous and thorny forests are more subjected to grazing. After going through the records and observation made, it is found that major cause for the depletion and loss of bio-diversity in the Nilgiris is man made fire. The recurrent fire set by grazers during summer (in southern India the summer starts from January onwards), has dealt a severe blow to the floristic composition. Forest fires either natural or man-made play a significant role in ecosystem dynamics. In the Nilgiris up to an extent Todas have played the role to convert the sholas into grassland. On the other hand in the North Coimbatore plateau for instance where the forest is burnt regularly and the incidence of grazing for heavier than that of Toda grazing on the Nilgiris. Moreover, the average rainfall is considerably less, the forest has become undoubtedly degraded and open, but shows no signs of disappearing. Grassland occur at similar elevation on the Palnis and the Anamalais where no Todas live (Ranganathan 1941). Here it has to be reiterated that the grasslands are an integral part of the natural vegetation of the Nilgirs. Paleo-ecological studies of the vegetation show the presence of extensive grassland at least 20000 years ago (Sukumar 1993), showing that they are also a climatic climax of the area. Recurrent fire decreases the green cover through prevention of regeneration and leads to the slow death of the forest. It also increases erosion and alters the physical and chemical properties of the soil, converting organic ground cover to soluble ash and modifying the microclimate through the removal of overhead foliage. The soluble ash is washed away in the next rain. Fires can also make trees more susceptible to insect attack. Simultaneously much woody vegetation present in the grasslands disappears. The upper most layer of soil, which is in the process of formation of humus, gets very badly affected and microbial organisms that play a very vital role in the system get destroyed. Severe burns such as those caused by wildfire can result in nearly complete destruction of organic matter and bring about changes in the physical, chemical and biological properties of the upper layers of mineral soil.

Forest fires ceases their effects on climate change vigorously. In the past decade researcher have realized the important contribution of biomass burning and it is recognized as a significant global source of emission contributing as much as 40% of gross Carbon dioxide and 30% of tropospheric ozone (Andreae 1991). Heavy smoke during forest fires also damage the forest ecosystem. In a study in Garhwal Himalaya forested area under smoke plumes has been estimated as 130.96 km² or 2.96% of total forests area (Roy 2000).

Changing Landscape

The biodiversity of NBR started getting deteriorated from 1832 onwards with the impact of human population and entry of exotics. There was maximum 92.3 % decrease in area under shola forest was recorded in the catchment area of Ooty from 1949 to 1992 and during the same period maximum 100 % decrease in the area under grassland was recorded in catchment areas Deva shola, Parson`s Valley and Ooty, respectively (Table 2). Not only the original habitat has sunk but also faces continuous pressure in one way or the other with the increase in population, which started with a few in 1840 to the tune of lakhs at present. Most of the human population visits this habitat for their basic needs and survival. Some of them visit this area primarily for fuel wood collection, some of them for grazing livestock and few for collecting Minor Forest Produce. The fuel wood is mostly collected from the hill slopes.

It is also worth mentioning that there is an overlap in the habitat use by man and wildlife. Elephant, Spotted deer and Sambar prefer many of the plant species, which are collected by the villagers as fuel wood. Similarly human interference has caused poor density in respect of Emblica officinalis in the process of collection of Emblica fruits. Continuous lopping of trees results in loss of population of Emblica. Indirectly it deprives herbivores i.e. Spotted deer/Sambar of their food. Thus a very strong destructive factor which has vital role in degrading forest in these ghats is man, who has been continuously interfering with natural vegetation, clearing and burning it, grazing his innumerable cattle removing forest produce at will, killing wildlife and carrying on shifting cultivation and raising various plantations. These activities have resulted in serious erosion, drying up of rivers and recurring droughts and fragmenting forested areas. Head loaders, cattle grazers, MFP collector’s etc, in general people are unaware of the bio-diversity concept sensing the shortage of fuel wood, the foresight of the forester had led to planting of Eucalyptus and Wattle in order to protect these living fossil forests. But increasing demand from the public and industries did not spare the shoals by late 20^th century. Cattle population has also increased manifold in the upper hills, trampling the indigenous flora and disturbing the eco system. Apart from this poaching of endangered species has also led to shrinkage of wildlife. Hundred years back the anthropogenic pressure was not much on the Nilgiri hills and the forest green cover was much more compared to what it is now. Ultimately the original landscape of both these beautiful hills has changed.

The Nilgiri plateau has undergone vast changes through the past century. The scene in the past was strikingly different from what it is today. Ouchterlony’s map served as an important document to show us the scenario of a century and a half ago and also proved useful for a comparative study of the land use patters. (Saravana 1993). There has been a noticeable decrease in the natural vegetation cover over this period. It refers to both the shoals and the grasslands because most people prefer to call the shoals as forested lands while they consider the grasslands as wastelands. The shoals have reduced by half (from almost 8600 ha to about 4225 ha), the grasslands have come down by factor of six (from 29875 ha in 1849 to about 4700 ha) (Table 3). With increase in population and influx of settlers especially when the various hydel projects were under construction, there was an increased need for more land, housing and cultivation purposes. Also the Nilgiris had a climate well suited for tea cultivation. In a long span of time of 143 years almost 26000 ha of grasslands have been replaced by cultivation (12,400 ha), tea (11,500 ha), wattle (9775 ha) and Eucalyptus plantations (5150 ha).

Table 2. Past and present area of the shoals and grasslands in different catchments (Kumar 1993)

Catchment Area under shoal in ha Area under grassland in ha

1849 1992 Decrease% 1849 1992 Decrease%

Emarald 550 450 13.9 2025 375 80.3

Avalanche 300 850 – 1450 625 –

Upper Bhavani – 275 – – 1300 –

Sillahalla 725 150 78.3 3075 25 –

Kundah 725 625 16.5 1200 150 87.9

Deva shola 900 125 0 3800 0 100

Kothibenu 775 150 100 2425 75 92.7

Keti-Kateri 100 0 69.9 1450 100 95.3

Porthimund 200 175 16.6 625 300 53.8

Mukurthi 1050 125 87.8 1250 600 57.5

Pykara 1000 350 60.9 3550 125 96.1

Kamarajasagar 375 100 72.9 2800 75 97.3

Parson’s Valley 375 170 53.5 950 0 100

Ooty 325 25 92.3 675 0 100

Naduvattam 750 125 81.4 1175 375 64.4

Pykara River 300 75 77.4 900 100 89.9

Glenmorgan – – – – – –

Sholur Kokul 200 150 24.8 775 50 94

Sandynala 750 125 83.4 2950 550 81

Anikorai 400 50 87.5 1925 25 98.8

Table 3. Changing landscape pattern of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (Kumar 1993)

Total Area
Ouchterlony’s Map (1849) Current Map (1992)

Sholas 8,600 ha 4,225 ha

Grasslands 29,875 ha 4,700 ha

Cultivation 10,875 ha 12,400 ha

Tea 0 ha 11,475 ha

Wattle 0 ha 9,775 ha

Eucalyptus 0 ha 5,150 ha

These figures are only for those area covered on the map while there is some additional area left on the eastern edge. The only region that seems to have been spared is a few pockets within the Mukurthi National Park. This too was not really left alone but plateau with wattle, which failed to survive and the grasslands seem to be coming up again.

Conclusions

The Nilgiri biosphere, which is having countless micro flora, fauna and the germplasm bank of various rare, threatened and endemic species are facing continuous pressure by one way or the other. The greatest pressure on forest is by way of forest fire. The man for his own greed is putting fire every year in one or the other part of Nilgiri biosphere causing more than 1000 ha annually under fire which is not only retarding the growth of existing standing vegetation but also not allowing new recruits to emerge out on the forest floor. In the process of which many endemic species are disappearing from their native place and giving mosaic pattern to the landscape. If the process is not being checked many of the endemic flora and fauna will disappear from the biosphere reserve even before its documentation is completed. The exotic which were introduced long back such as Acacia meansii,, Eucalyptus spp, Eupatorium grandilosum, Cestrum nigrum, Eulex europiaus etc. in the Nilgiri plateau if not checked will slowly take over the place of native. Monoculture plantation of tea, coffee and other forestry species have already change the landscape. It is the right time for the foresters, naturalists and environmentalists to concentrate and solve this problem by way of utilizing some of these exotics as a fire wood for the neighbouring rural masses and regular women head loaders. It also reminds us to protect the beautiful creature from the indiscriminate destruction. Forest fire is one of the major detrimental factors in depletion of biodiversity of Nilgiri biosphere. If not checked at this juncture it will not only lead to reduction in forest covers but also pave way to unfriendly species to ecosystem by wiping out the sensitive endemic species forever. The people along the reserve forests are not very clear about the biodiversity conservation concept. The role of each organism in an Eco system is largely unnoticed. At this juncture the awareness alone can bring down the incidences of destruction. It is the foremost duty of every human being to come forward for repairing the loss already done to our nature treasure.

IFFN/GFMC contribution submitted by:

Rajiv K. Srivastava
Assistant Director General
Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education
Dehra Dun 248006
India

Tel: ++91-0135-757485
e-mail: srivastavark <srivastavark@icfre.up.nic.in>

References

Chitrapu, V.R. 1986. Action plan for the management of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.

Gadgil M. 1984. An approach to eco-development of Western ghats (Trivandrum; Workshop on Ecodevelopment of Western Ghats, 1-43.

Homji, V.M. Meher. 1965. Ecological status of the montane grasslands of the South Indian Hills – A phytogeographic reassessment. Indian Forester 91, 210-215.

Homji, V.M. Meher. 1984. Udhagamandalam, (Ootacamund) biogeographic perspective. Ind. Geogr. J. 59(2), 205-213.

Kumar, S. 1993. Survey and Mapping of Shola Forests and Grasslands in the Upper Nilgiri Plateau and assessment of human utilization of the vegetation. Report submitted to World Wild Fund for Nature-India.

Richards P.W, 1952; The tropical rain forests. London : Cambridge Univ. Press.

Ranganathan C.R. (1941) Working plan for the Nilgiris Biosphere, Government Press Madras. 12-15

Roy, P.S. 2000. Assessment of forest fires in India through Remote Sensing. In: Asia-Pacific Regional Co-operation on the Scientific Dimensions of Forest Fires – Report of the Project Planning Meeting, COSTED Central Secretariat, Chennai : 51-77.

Saravana Kumar. 1993. Survey and mapping of Shola forests and grasslands in the upper Nilgiri Plateau and Assessment of the human Utilization of the Vegetation Draft Report; WWF India, 3-15.

Srivastava, R.K. 1997. Forest fire and its prevention by generating environmental awareness in the rural masses-World Forestry Congress, Turkey.

Sukumar, R., R. Rames, R.K. Pan, and G. Rajagopalan. 1993. ADC record of late quaternary climate change from tropical peats in Southern India. Nature 364, 703-706.

Vishnu-Mittre, and H.P. Gupta. 1968. A living fossil community in South Indian Hills, Current Science 37, 671-672.

Whitmore T.C. (1975). Tropical rain forests of the far East. Oxford, Clarendron Press.

Country Notes
IFFN No. 26

24. November 2017/by GFMCadmin

Forest Fire and biotic interferences (IFFN No. 26)

in

INDIA: Invasion of Exotic Weeds in the Natural Forests of Tropical India due to Forest Fire- A Threat to Biodiversity

(IFFN No. 27 – July 2002, p. 90-92)

Ancient human race metamorphosed into a modern race. In course of time his greedy needs started changing the landscape by way of cutting, burning and apriority the natural resources. Forest cover started shrinking with limited flora and fauna. Introduction of exotics reflected positive and negative impact. But if we take in term of local biodiversity it actually played a negative role. Slowly and slowly it started replacing the natives. Certain plants, which were introduced as ornamental plants, have now become a weed. For example Lantana camara, Ulex europaeus, Acacia mearnsii, Eupatorium glandulosum and Cytisus scoparius have become a menace in Western Ghats and have replaced the valued flora at places. Fire is one of the major factors for such species, which is not only depleting undergrowth but also facilitating the germination of above-mentioned weeds. Present paper reports impact of fire on frequency, abundance, density and basal cover of these five species.

Vegetational composition of various places differs with each other. Interaction between abiotic and biotic things brings out positive as well as negative changes. Undesirable changes force system to work in negative direction. In, India, as the civilization started ascending towards the evaluation of modern man, the landscape started getting changed and also effected the genetic pool, whether we take the Himalaya as in the North or Western and Eastern Ghats in the peninsular India. Now, when the whole world is concerned about the conservation of endemic flora and fauna it is the right time to think about certain exotics, which have become a real menace and threat to the local natives. (Srivastava 1994, Methew 1965).

A characteristic feature of the Nilgiri biosphere is the occurrence of sholas above 1500 m. They are found in patches in hollows and sheltered folds surrounded by rolling downs in Anamalais, Nilgiri, and Palni hills and the high ranges of Kerala and Karanataka. (Methew 1959, 1965; 1949-74; 1987) Evergreen forests with thick undergrowth consists of short boled trees mostly belonging to the families Myrtaceae, Stryaceae and Lauraceae with a low height of trees up to 20m. The undergrowth consists largely of Rabaceous plants and Strobilanthes (Acanthaceae). The ground flora consists of ferns and mosses. The biodiversity of this region is adversely effected by increasing biotic pressure, specially over grazing (Fvtenally 1992). However, fire is also very important factor for the degradation of the forests, which not only convert vegetation into ash but also facilitates in the spread of weeds and the escaped exotics, now weeds, to come up more vigorously. The spread of such weeds has taken away much of the fodder resources as such obnoxious weeds cannot be grazed. Measures to control such factors have been suggested by Gadgil (1984).

Not only this, the forest fires also effects on climate changes vigorously. In the past decade researcher have realized the important contribution of biomass burning and it is recognized now as a significant global source of emission contributing as much as 40% of gross Carbon dioxide and 30% of troposphere ozone (Anderson 1969).

The study area is located at Udhagamandalam-Mysore road in Wenlock Downs Forest Reserves in the Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu. The study area consists of two small adjoining watersheds (each about 32 ha) having nearly identical topography, slope, vegetation and soil characteristics. The vegetation of the watershed is typical of the Nilgiris with “Shola” forests, rolling grasslands and swamps. The “Shola” forests are largely confined to the valleys or folds, while the adjoining hill slopes are covered with grasses.

Observations were taken in ecotone of shola grassland in current year and after one year of fire incidence along with the area without fire. The other associated species were mostly undergrowth consists of Berberis tinctoria, Plectronia neilgherrensis, Hypercum mysorense, Rubus spp. Mahonia leschenaultii, Michelia nilagirica, Viburnum species, Hydrnocarpus alpina, Pittosporum nilghirense, Eugenia arnottiana, Casoeria esculenta, Garcinia gambogia and Schefflera spp. etc.

Two plots of 50x50m were selected for the study after natural fire in the first plot. Second associated plot was unaffected by fire. During the study period of two years, fire incidence occurred only in first year and observations were taken in subsequent years after fire.

Observations revealed that frequency, abundance, density and basal cover of all the exotics seems to be decreased immediately after fire incidence in the first year and in some species it became almost zero because due to fire vegetative shoots were burned. Maximum frequency and basal cover were recorded in the species Lantana camara followed by Acacia mearnsii. After fire incidences the basal cover of Lantana camara has increased tremendously in second year.

It has also been observed that generally most of the species present in the study area shows increasing trend in terms of frequency, abundance, density and basal cover in subsequent year (second year) after fire incidences. Fire plays a vital role in invasion of exotics in existing natural vegetation in due course of time.

Exotics namely Eupatorium glandulosum, Ulex europeus (Gorse), Lantana camara, Acacia meansii and Cytisus scoparius (Yellow broom) have made considerable change into the grasslands in recent years. Eupatorium glandulosum is a Mexicon species and is an escape from gardens into which it was introduced early in the past century. It readily takes possession of areas where the soil is even temporarily exposed. It comes up on the cuttings made for hunt rides in the Wenlock Downs and in places where the hooves of Toda buffaloes have wounded the soil. It occupies areas gregariously in unsightly colonies, is apparently not easy to eradicate and bids fair in course of time to impair the beauty of the downs. Ulex europeus was introduced on the plateau many years ago as an ornamental plant. It has since spread over considerable areas, especially on the slopes falling to Parson’s valley and in the neighbourhood of Nanjanad. Its yellow flowers make a show all the year round, but there is little otherwise to recommend it and it is certainly not to be preferred to the grass, which it is steadily displacing. Cytissus scoparius is much less invasive than the other two species mentioned above. The Forest Department apparently introduced it on the downs in an effort to afforest the grasslands. It has established itself in small areas at the head of the bridle path to Bangi Tapal. It is also to be found on the slopes near Nanjanad along the road to Avalanche.

During the course of the study deletion of local biodiversity by the way of fire, grazing and invasion of exotics and weeds were also recorded. In the process of repeated burning, the species composition is gently changed. Other factor for survival of exotics due to their morphological characteristics like presence of modified leaf into spine protect them from frost and drought and also does not allow water to escape and more or less fertile soil is sufficient for their survival and this is adverse in case of very succulent species. A vicious circle with repeated pressure on the ecosystems paving way to the species, which welcome the activity of fire and grazing. The result is quite visible in most of the places, species like Acacia mearnsii, Ulex europaeus, Eupatorium grandulosum and Cistrum nigrum have already found their place comfortably and further slowly and slowly they are changing the landscape with replacing the natives.

Here it is worth mentioning that the Shola is very sensitive type of vegetation. Once it vanishes from its original habitat, it is very difficult to make it to reappear in view of a drastic change in microclimate (Meher-Homji 1967, Vishnu Mittre and Gupta 1968), which does not allow shoal seedlings to grow in open grassland. The exotic plantations such as Wattle, Acaica melonoxylon and Eucalyptus, which took entry in shola-grassland ecosystem, are now giving shelter to the shola seedlings (specially the pioneer species) under their canopy. (Srivastava 1994). But these exotics are increasing vigorously in due course of time they may replace the native vegetation.

Due to advent of civilization and population pressure on one side and another side invasion of exotics create havoc to natural treasure. Physical cutting and burning can be check by strict policing but clandestine entry of some of the exotics into a vast landscape, which goes unnoticed, is creating havoc by replacing the native species. If it is not checked at this juncture it will affect not only the biodiversity alone but whole ecosystem.

IFFN/GFMC contribution submitted by:

Rajeev K. Srivastava
Assistant Director General, Monitoring & Evaluation Wing
Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education
Dehra Dun-248006
India

References

Anderson, H.E. 1969. Heat transfer fire spread, ForestService USDA Res. Pap. INT-69.

Gadgil, M. 1984. An approach to eco-development of WesternGhats. Workshop on Eco development of Western Ghats, 1-43. Trivandrum.

Fvtehally, Zafer 1992. Human pressure affects biodiversity in the Planis, INTACH July 92, Kodaikanal.

Mathew, K.M. 1959. The vegetation of Kodaikanal grass slopes. J. Bombay. Nat Hist. Soc. 56, 387-422.

Mathew, K.M. 1965. A note on Wattle of the Palni Hills.Indian Forester 91, 267-271.

Mathew, K.M. 1969. The exotics flora of Kodaikanal. Rec.Bot Surv. India, 20 (1), 1-242.

Mathew K.M. F. Blasco, S. Ignacimuthu. 1975. Biological changes at Kodaikanal 1949-1974. Trop. Ecology 16, 147-162.

Mathew, K.M. 1987. Vegetation of Kodai and its non-regeneration. A hand book of the Anglade Institute of Natural History, 40-41.

Meher-Homji, V.M. 1967. Phytogeographyof the South Indian hill stations. Bull Torrey Bot. Club94, 230-242.

Srivastava, R. K. 1994. Reestablishmentof sholas in the grassland. A reverse process. Indian Forester 120 ( 9),868-869.

Vishnu Mittre, and H.P. Gupta. 1968. A living fossilcommunity in South Indian Hills. Current Science 37, 671-672.

Country Notes
IFFN No. 27

24. November 2017/by GFMCadmin